Nebamun Hunting in the Marshes (Reconstruction) Reproduction of a tomb painting from the 18th Dynasty tomb chapel of Nebamun, with a reconstruction of the missing elements. Purchase Print About the Artwork This wall painting of a marsh hunting scene was part of the decoration of a tomb chapel belonging to Nebamun, an official scribe and grain counter at the temple complex in Thebes during the 18th dynasty, around 1350 BC. Elaborately adorned with vibrant fresco paintings, the tomb's plastered walls depict idealised scenes from Nebamun's life. In this fragment, Nebamun is shown twice, hunting birds with a throwing stick and spearing fish from reed boats in the marshes of the Nile. He is accompanied by his wife Hatshepsut and their young children and surrounded by the flora and fauna of the wetlands. The intricate details and vivid colours offer a glimpse into the opulence and joy that once filled Nebamun's life, capturing a timeless moment of pleasure and abundance he wanted to last forever. This is perhaps the most iconic rendition of the 'marsh hunting’ scene within the rich tapestry of ancient Egyptian funerary art. Found on the walls of tombs and tomb chapels, these depictions connected the deceased with the afterlife, emphasised the importance of the natural world and its cycles, and demonstrated control over the chaotic forces of nature. This fresco is just one of several famous pieces of ancient Egyptian art from Nebamun’s tomb, the precise location of which has been lost. Hacked out of the walls of the tomb by unscrupulous archaeologists and antiquities dealers, the fragments of the chapel’s decoration hint at the magnificence and opulence of the original decoration. My reconstruction is based on three fragments which Egyptologists have suggested coming from the same painting. Fragment 1 was purchased from Henry Salt in 1821 for the British Museum collection. Fragments 2 and 3 were acquired from antiquities dealers by Moïse Lévy de Benzion, whose collection was sold after his death and then confiscated by the Egyptian government. They were stored in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo but their current location is unknown. They are now only known from catalogue photographs taken in the 1950s. Art Ref DP081 Read My Article Available to purchase as Giclée Print Object Record Object Type Wall Relief Materials Date Period Dynasty 18 Findspot Tomb-Chapel of Nebamun, Theban Necropolis Dimensions Current Location British Museum, Private Collection Object Number People Depicted Nebamun, Hatshepsut Deities Depicted None Animals Depicted Bird, Cat, Butterfly, Fish, Mouse Themes Love ancient Egypt? So do I. Sign up to be the first to hear about new artwork, behind-the-scenes insights, special offers, and the fascinating stories behind the pieces. No spam, just beautifully crafted content for fellow Egyptophiles. Email* Subscribe I want to subscribe to your mailing list.

Scribe Neqbed Praising Osiris and Nekhbet Afterlife Reproduction of a vignette from the Book of the Dead created for the royal scribe Nebqed, scribe of Ma'at in the house of Ma'at during the reign of king Amenhotep III around 1400 BC. Purchase Print About the Artwork Reproduction of a vignette from the Book of the Dead created for the royal scribe Nebqed, scribe of Ma'at in the house of Ma'at during the reign of king Amenhotep III around 1400 BC. Nebqed can be seen wearing standing before a pile of funerary offerings, including bundles of lotus flowers, baskets of fruits and grain, bread, fowl and cuts of meat. He wears a wig with triangular stepped sides, a white linen robe, and a scribal palette tucked into his belt. Art Ref DP040 Read My Article Available to purchase as Giclée Print Object Record Object Type Papyrus Materials Date Period Dynasty 18 Findspot Theban Tomb TT319, Thebes, Theban Necropolis Dimensions Current Location Musée du Louvre Object Number People Depicted Nebqed, Menemheb, Mahou Deities Depicted Osiris, Nekhbet Animals Depicted Cow, Vulture Themes Love ancient Egypt? So do I. Sign up to be the first to hear about new artwork, behind-the-scenes insights, special offers, and the fascinating stories behind the pieces. No spam, just beautifully crafted content for fellow Egyptophiles. Email* Subscribe I want to subscribe to your mailing list.

Isis and Nephthys Protect Tutankhamun Reproduction and colourisation of a scene from the rear panel of the second golden shrine of Tutankhamun, dating to 1324 BC. Purchase Print About the Artwork Reproduction and colourisation of a scene from the rear panel of the second golden shrine of Tutankhamun, dating to 1324 BC. The sister goddesses Isis and Nephthys stretch out their protective wings to encircle the dead king. They recite spells that emphasise the rejuvenation and protection of Tutankhamun in the afterlife, whose names are given in cartouches. Art Ref DP092 Read My Article Available to purchase as Giclée Print Greeting Card Object Record Object Type Shrine Materials Date Period Dynasty 18 Findspot Tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62), Valley of the Kings Dimensions Current Location Cairo Museum Object Number People Depicted Tutankhamun Deities Depicted Isis, Nephthys Animals Depicted Themes Love ancient Egypt? So do I. Sign up to be the first to hear about new artwork, behind-the-scenes insights, special offers, and the fascinating stories behind the pieces. No spam, just beautifully crafted content for fellow Egyptophiles. Email* Subscribe I want to subscribe to your mailing list.

Trio of Female Musicians Playing Music Reproduction of a detail from a painting in the Tomb of Nakht in Thebes dating to c. 1410-1370 BC depicting a trio of musicians taking part in the annual "Beautiful Festival of the Valley" celebration. Purchase Print About the Artwork Reproduction of a detail from a painting in the Tomb of Nakht in Thebes dating to c. 1410-1370 BC depicting a trio of musicians taking part in the annual "Beautiful Festival of the Valley" celebration. Each woman has unique features that separate her from her companions and are playing different instruments, including a double flute, a lute, and a harp with an elaborate soundbox decorated with animal skin. Art Ref DP062 Read My Article Available to purchase as Giclée Print Greeting Card Object Record Object Type Wall Relief Materials Date Period Dynasty 18 Findspot Tomb of Nakht (TT53), Sheikh Abd el-Qurna Dimensions Current Location Tomb of Nakht (TT53), Sheikh Abd el-Qurna Object Number People Depicted Nakht Deities Depicted None Animals Depicted Themes Love ancient Egypt? So do I. Sign up to be the first to hear about new artwork, behind-the-scenes insights, special offers, and the fascinating stories behind the pieces. No spam, just beautifully crafted content for fellow Egyptophiles. Email* Subscribe I want to subscribe to your mailing list.

Explore Natalie Watson’s portfolio of ancient Egyptian art reproductions. See authentic, hand-drawn scenes inspired by museum originals, tombs, and temples. A showcase of artistry and historical detail. Bringing Ancient Art Back to Life Each of my reconstruction projects begins with damaged, incomplete, or fragmentary ancient Egyptian art, and the challenge of imagining how it once looked in its prime. Using meticulous research, an understanding of ancient techniques, and a deep respect for the original creators, I restore lost colours, repair missing details, and reassemble scattered fragments. The results not only revive the visual splendour of the past but also help modern audiences and researchers see these works as they were meant to be seen. Restoring details and colour to damaged art Cut into the limestone cliffs of the Sheikh-Abd-el-Gournah necropolis is the tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky (TT181), sculptors at the Small Temple of Medinet Habu. Left incomplete, the tomb faced deterioration from flooding, mudslides, and vandalism, resulting in the deliberate removal or irreparable damage to its original decoration. In a meticulous restoration, I revived a compelling scene portraying the Chief Sculptor overseeing a bustling workshop. This tableau provides glimpses into daily life and valuable insights into ancient craftsmen's tools and techniques, aiding in the interpretation of archaeological discoveries. Read More Reapplying the layers of paint and decoration The Abydos King List, intricately carved into the walls of Seti I's Great Temple at Abydos, meticulously records the names of 76 rulers within cartouches, spanning a historical timeline of the preceding 1,600 years. Originally, the wall reliefs were adorned with vibrant paint, employing a standard palette of colours, a technique preserved on reliefs in other sections of the temple. In my reconstruction, I meticulously reapplied the paint layer, creating a vivid and colourful restoration that revives the original brilliance of the artwork. Read More Repairing the work of vandals Userhat, a wab-priest in the Temple of Thutmosis I, commissioned the creation of a sumptuously decorated tomb in Thebes (TT51). Revered as among the finest examples of Dynasty 19 art, the tomb's decoration showcases the opulence of Userhat's era. Unfortunately, the paintings within the Tomb of Userhat faced significant degradation over time, largely attributed to vandalism. In restoring this artwork, I have meticulously revived its original splendour, addressing not only gaps now filled with concrete but also remedying faded and flaking paint. Read More Restoring whole scenes from fragments This fresco, originally part of the lost Tomb of Nebamun, suffered the unfortunate fate of being forcibly removed from the tomb walls by unscrupulous archaeologists and antiquities dealers. Despite this loss, the surviving fragments of the chapel's decoration offer glimpses into the original artwork's magnificence and opulence. In this reconstruction, I have painstakingly pieced together the artwork based on three fragments that Egyptologists believe originated from the same painting, endeavouring to restore and capture the grandeur of the initial masterpiece. Read More

Explore Natalie Watson’s portfolio of ancient Egyptian art reproductions. See authentic, hand-drawn scenes inspired by museum originals, tombs, and temples. A showcase of artistry and historical detail. Tutankhamun Collection From the moment Howard Carter peered into the sealed chamber and whispered he could see "wonderful things,” the world has been captivated by the splendour of Tutankhamun's treasures. My collection faithfully reimagines scenes and artefacts from Tutankhamun’s tomb (KV62), bringing to life the artistry, symbolism, and stories they hold. Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun Amongst the Vines LEARN MORE Isis and Nephthys Protect Tutankhamun LEARN MORE The Burial Chamber of Tutankhamun LEARN MORE Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun in a Floral Pavilion LEARN MORE Tutankhamun's Death Mask LEARN MORE Tutankhamun Pouring Perfume For Ankhesenamun LEARN MORE The Winged Goddess Isis LEARN MORE The Protective Wings of Isis LEARN MORE

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DISCOVER WONDERFUL THINGS “...as my eyes grew accustomed to the light, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues, and gold - everywhere the glint of gold. For the moment - an eternity it must have seemed to the others standing by - I was struck dumb with amazement, and when Lord Carnarvon, unable to stand the suspense any longer, inquired anxiously, 'Can you see anything?' it was all I could do to get out the words, 'Yes, wonderful things.” ​ HOWARD CARTER, ON OPENING THE TOMB OF TUTANKHAMUN All Posts Photography Art Articles Translations Egyptology Predynastic New Kingdom Search Log in / Sign up Natalie Watson 7 days ago Art Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun: The Perfume Pouring Scene from the Naos Shrine A reproduction of a scene from Tutankhamun's Naos Shrine showing him pouring perfume into the hands of his wife and sister Ankhesenamun 17 views 0 comments 1 like. Post not marked as liked 1 Natalie Watson Apr 25 Art The Weighing of Hunefer’s Heart Explore the stunning vignette from the Book of Going Forth By Day that depicts Hunefer's journey through the Hall of Truth in ancient Egypt. 127 views 0 comments 1 like. Post not marked as liked 1 Natalie Watson Feb 17 Art Antelope in the Desert Valley: Naqada Decorated Ware Explore ancient Egyptian culture through Naqada II Decorated Ware, showcasing intricate pottery depicting an antelope hunt in the desert 81 views 0 comments Post not marked as liked

Search Results Blog Posts (55) Other Pages (7) 55 items found for "" Sort By: Best Match Tutankhamun and Ankhesenamun: The Perfume Pouring Scene from the Naos Shrine Reproduction Details Object Type : Naos shrine Date: c. 1336-1327 BC Period: Dynasty 18, New Kingdom Findspot : Treasury Room, Tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62), Valley of the Kings Materials : Wood, gold and silver Size : Height 50.5 cm, width 32 cm (shrine) Current location : Egyptian Museum, C airo ( JE 61481 ) Art Ref : DP36 This reproduction is based on a small panel found on a golden statue shrine known as a noas found in the treasury room of Tutankhamun’s tomb dating to around 1324 BC. The shrine is decorated with scenes showing the king with his wife and sister, Ankhesenamun, executed using a form of ancient Egyptian art distinctive to the 18th dynasty known as Amarna style. Tutankhamun Tutankhamun is sitting on a lion-footed ebony folding stool topped with a leopard-skin cushion. He is wearing the Blue Crown with a uraeus cobra, a flowing linen garment secured with a red sash around the waist, and a floral collar. In one hand he holds a bouquet of lotus flowers and mandrake fruits, and in the other, a vial of perfume he is pouring into the hands of his wife. Ankhesenamun Ankhesenamun is sitting on a richly patterned cushion as she casually leans on her husband. She holds out her hand to receive the perfume and holds it close to her nose as if to smell its fragrance. She wears a fine linen dress which exposes one of her breasts, secured at the waist with a red sash. Upon her head is an elaborate Nubian-style wig held in place by a diadem featuring the uraeus, or royal cobra. Upon this wig is a modius or platform crown often shown on New Kingdom queens which is related to her role as the Divine Chantress of Amun. It features two falcon feathers symbolising the god Amun held between cow horns and a sun disk, symbolising the goddesses Isis and Hathor. Translation The hieroglyphs show the royal couple’s names inside oval cartouches as well as a short prayer for eternal life. To the right of Tutankhamun is his birth name: “Tutankhamun heqa Iunu shemai (The living image of Amun, ruler of southern Heliopolis)” To the left of Tutankhamun is his throne name: “Nebkheperura (Lord of the forms of Ra)” The inscription and cartouche relating to Ankhesenamun begin above the perfume vial and should be read from right to left: “Great royal wife of the Lord of the Two Lands, Ankhesenamun (She lives for Amun), may she live for eternity” The Divine Women Ruling the Ancient Egyptian Pantheon: Meet the Goddesses of Ancient Egypt My newest print features 15 of the major goddesses of the ancient Egyptian pantheon, shown with their modern names, and their names in the ancient Egyptian language. Though this is my creation, the figures are based on those found in tomb paintings and papyrus from a range of periods. Let's meet them. Bastet bꜢst The feline goddess of home, fertility, and music Bastet is an ancient Egyptian goddess revered as the protector of the home and family, as well as the goddess of fertility, music, and dance. Initially depicted as a lioness or a woman with the head of a lioness, her image later transitioned to that of a domestic cat, reflecting her dual nature as both fierce and nurturing. Bastet was worshipped for her ability to bring joy, protect against evil spirits, and safeguard the household. Her primary cult centre was in the city of Bubastis, where grand festivals and elaborate ceremonies celebrated her with music, dancing, and feasting, highlighting her significance in daily and religious life. Hathor ḥwt-ḥr The cow-headed goddess of love, beauty, and motherhood Hathor was one of Egypt’s earliest goddesses and was worshipped as the divine representation of protection, motherhood, queenship, music, dance, joy, love and sexuality. She was the daughter of Ra, the all-powerful sun god, and wore a solar disk upon her head within a pair of bovine horns. In Egyptian, her name meant “House of Horus”, referring to her role as the wife of Horus, the sky god associated with kingship. Heqet ḥqt The frog-headed goddess of fertility and childbirth Heqet is an ancient Egyptian goddess associated with fertility, childbirth, and rebirth, often depicted as a frog or a woman with a frog's head. Frogs were symbols of fertility due to their association with the annual flooding of the Nile, which brought life-giving water and renewal to the land. Heqet was believed to assist in childbirth, breathing life into newborns and protecting mothers during labour. Temples and amulets dedicated to Heqet were common, emphasising her role in ensuring safe births and new beginnings. Imentet ỉmn.t-t The goddess of the afterlife and renewal Imentet was a goddess of the dead and was believed to have lived in a tree at the edge of the western desert overlooking the gates to the underworld. She met the souls of the recently deceased and offered them bread and water before ushering them into the realm of the dead. Her name means “She of the West” and her crown is the sign representing the West (a semi-circle on top of one long and one short pole) surmounted by a hawk. Isis ꜣst The goddess of magic, motherhood, and healing Isis was a goddess of women, motherhood, fertility, and royal power. She was the sister of Nephthys and Seth, and the sister-wife of Osiris and mother to Horus. Isis played an important role in the resurrection of Osiris after his murder at the hands of Seth, and was believed to protect the dead with her husband in the afterlife. Upon her head is the symbol of her name which is the hieroglyph for a throne. Maat mꜣꜥt The goddess of truth, justice, and harmony Maat the winged goddess in Egyptian mythology symbolises truth, balance and justice. As the embodiment of cosmic equilibrium, Maat's presence was pivotal for maintaining balance and ethical conduct in the world. Maat played a vital role in ancient Egyptian society ensuring harmony and fairness in both earthly and divine matters. She was present in the judgment of the deceased where a heart was weighed against her feather to determine one's fate in the afterlife. Her feathered headdress represents her connection to law and order. Neith nit The goddess of warfare and weaponry Neith was one of ancient Egypt’s earliest goddesses whose name meant “she is the terrifying one”. She was worshipped from the pre-dynastic period as the original creator of the universe and everything it contained, governing how all things functioned. As religious practices evolved she was worshipped more for her protective qualities. In her form as a goddess of war, she was said to make the weapons of warriors and to guard their bodies when they died. The symbol for her name and the headdress she wears depicts two bows over a shield, which is sometimes crossed with arrows. Nekhbet nḫbt The vulture goddess of protection, royalty, and patroness of Upper Egypt Nekhbet is an early predynastic local goddess, who was the patron of the city of Nekheb and Upper Egypt. She and her Lower Egyptian counterpart Wadjet often appeared together as the “Two Ladies”, symbolising all of ancient Egypt when it was unified. In early art, Nekhbet was depicted as a vulture or as a woman with the head of a vulture. As a vulture, Nekhbet was usually shown hovering on spread wings and clutching a shen symbol in her claws, which represented eternal encircling protection. She also appeared on the headdresses of royalty as a vulture alongside a uraeus cobra, the creature associated with her counterpart Wadjet. Nephthys nbt-ḥwt The goddess of mourning, death and the night Nephthys, an ancient Egyptian goddess, was associated with mourning, protection, and the afterlife. She was revered as a guardian goddess, embodying both the sorrow of loss and the promise of rebirth and regeneration. Sister to Isis, Osiris, and Seth, and wife of Seth, she played a crucial role in the resurrection of Osiris by helping Isis gather his dismembered body. Depicted with protective wings and a house and basket hieroglyph on her head, Nephthys was believed to protect the deceased and assist their journey to the afterlife. Nut nt The sky goddess, mother of the gods, and bringer of night Nut, an ancient Egyptian goddess, personified the sky, stars, and heavens. She was depicted as a cow or as a naked woman with blue skin adorned with stars, representing the celestial canopy that shelters the world. Nut was the daughter of Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess of moisture, and sister-wife to Geb, the Earth god. Together, they are the offspring of the primordial deity Ra-Atum. One of her most significant roles is in the daily cycle of the sun. Each night, Nut swallows the sun god Ra, and each morning, she gives birth to him anew, symbolising the dawn. This daily rebirth underscores her association with renewal and regeneration. Sekhmet sḫmt The lioness goddess of war, destruction, and healing Sekhmet is a powerful ancient Egyptian goddess of war, destruction, and healing whose name meant “the Powerful One”. She is often depicted as a lioness or as a woman with the head of a lioness, symbolising her fierce and protective nature. Daughter of the sun god Ra, she was known as the “Eye of the Sun”, the violent, dazzling and protective aspect of the creator god. She breathed fire against her enemies and was called upon to protect the pharaohs in battle. Despite her fearsome attributes, Sekhmet also had a dual role as a healer and held the title "mistress of life". She was worshipped as a goddess who could inflict and cure ailments and was associated with medicine and surgery. Serket srḳt The scorpion goddess of protection against venom Serket, whose name means "She Who Tightens the Throat", is an ancient Egyptian goddess associated with protection, healing, and venomous creatures. She is often depicted as a woman with a scorpion on her head or as a scorpion herself. Serket's association with healing made her a patroness of physicians and magicians who invoked her aid to treat scorpion stings and snake bites. As a protective deity, she was one of four goddesses who protected the canopic jars containing the organs of the mummified, entrusted with safeguarding the jar containing the intestines guarded by Qebehsenuef. Seshat sšꜢt The goddess of writing, wisdom, and measurement Seshat represented wisdom, knowledge, and writing and was the patroness of architects and scribes. She played a crucial role in recording history, measuring time, and overseeing the construction of temples and monuments. As the "Lady of the Library," she symbolised the importance of literacy and scholarship in Egyptian society, embodying the pursuit of wisdom and the preservation of knowledge. Seshat was depicted draped in a leopard skin, a garment usually worn by male priests, and a headdress resembling a seven-pointed star. Taweret tꜢ-wrt The hippopotamus goddess of childbirth and fertility Taweret is the ancient Egyptian goddess of childbirth and fertility, symbolising strength and maternal care. Her benevolent nature extended beyond maternity, with amulets and household items bearing her image used to protect against malevolent forces. She was depicted as a hybrid creature with the body of a hippopotamus, the limbs of a lion, the back and tail of a Nile crocodile, and the breasts and belly of a pregnant woman. Tawaret was believed to safeguard mothers and children during pregnancy and childbirth, warding off evil spirits and harmful influences. Wadjet wꜢḏt The cobra goddess of protection, royalty, and patroness of Lower Egypt Wadjet is an early predynastic local goddess, who was the patron of the city of Per-Wadjet (Buto) and Lower Egypt. She and her Upper Egyptian counterpart Nekhbet often appeared together as the “Two Ladies”, symbolising all of ancient Egypt when it was unified. Wadjet was depicted as a cobra or a woman with a cobra's head and was closely associated with the uraeus, the rearing cobra emblem on pharaohs' crowns, which was believed to spit fire at enemies. She was also linked to the Eye of Ra, embodying the sun god's protective and vengeful aspects. She was worshipped as a fierce protector of the nation and a provider of stability and order. The Abydos King List Reconstructed Reproduction Details Object Type: Painted bas relief Date: c. 1290-1279 BC Period : Reign of Seti I, Dynasty 19, New Kingdom Findspot : Temple of Seti I, Abydos (west wall of the passage leading from the Second Hypostyle Hall to the Butcher’s Hall) Reproduction Notes : This reproduction was made by Natalie Watson using reference photographs of the current site found on Wikimedia . The colours and art style used are based on Amice Calverley’s colour reproductions in ‘ The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos Vol 1-3’ . The transliterations and translations of hieroglyphics come from Rosalie David’s book Temple Ritual at Abydos . Reconstructed elements of the image are based on examples used elsewhere in the temple. Print Reference : DP85A The Mansion of Menmaatre Seti I was the second pharaoh of Dynasty 19, ruling c. 1290-1279 BC, and the father of Ramesses II. Among the many artistic achievements of the popular king’s reign, his mortuary temple at Abydos represents a high point in craftsmanship and ambition. Called the Mansion of Menmaatre in antiquity, it is better known today as the Great Temple of Abydos or the Memnonium. It was commissioned by the king to provide a place to honour the gods and his eternal soul. Unlike most temples, it was dedicated to more than one god. As well as the deified form of Seti I, it also included chapels honouring Ptah, Re-Horakhty, Amun-Re, Osiris, Isis, and Horus. The temple was unfinished at the time of the king’s death and completed by his son and heir, Ramesses II. It is famous for the beauty and quality of its decoration, and the presence of the invaluable ‘Abydos King List’. The Abydos Kings List The Abydos King List is carved into the temple's walls and records the names of 76 rulers inside cartouches from the previous 1,600 years. The hieroglyphics record the prayers that Seti and his son Ramesses are reciting for the past kings. The List was carved on the west wall of the passage known as the Gallery of Lists which leads from the Second Hypostyle Hall to the Butcher’s Hall (‘B List of Kings’ on the plan below). You can explore a 3D model of the Kings List made by David Anderson to help you visualise the space and the poor state of preservation it is now in. Originally, the wall reliefs would have been brightly painted using a standard palette of colours which are preserved on reliefs in other parts of the temple. Seti I In the scene, Seti stands before the list in full regalia, holding a burning censor and gesturing with his hand to indicate he is speaking. On his head is the blue crown with a rearing uraeus cobra, and he is wearing a linen Shendyt kilt held in place with a jewelled belt. The hieroglyphics record Seti’s words, which describe how he is giving offerings to the eternal souls of the kings in praise of the god Ptah-Sokar-Osiris: Words spoken by the king, Menmaatre. Bringing the god to his food, depositing an offering for the Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt: “Greetings to thee, Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, who-is-south-of-his-wall; come, that I may carry out for thee these choice things which Horus carried out for his father Osiris.” Ramesses II In front of Seti is his son, Ramesses II, his young age indicated by the sidelock of hair on his head. He is wearing the linen robes of a priest and reciting a prayer from the scroll in his hands. The hieroglyphics beside him explain he is reciting ‘ The Jubilant Summons’ for his predecessors: The Jubilant Summons by the hereditary prince and king’s eldest legitimate son, whom he loves, Ramesses, justified. The Offering Formula Above the registers filled with cartouches are hieroglyphics recording the words of the offering prayer Seti is reciting for the kings. This is a standard funerary prayer which is designed to give the kings all the things their eternal souls would require for a happy afterlife. An offering-which-the-king gives for Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, Lord of the Sanctuary of Sokar, who is residing in the Mansion of Menmaatre. Depositing an offering for the Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Menmaatre, son of Re, Seti Merenptah. A thousand of bread, a thousand of beer, a thousand of cattle, a thousand of fowl, a thousand of incense, a thousand of unguent, a thousand of linen, a thousand of cloth, a thousand of wine, a thousand of god’s offering, as the gift of the king, Menmaatre. Register 1 and 2 The List itself can be found in the top and middle registers of cartouches which take up the bulk of the scene. The names of 76 kings are shown in chronological order which should be read from the top left to the bottom right (see closeups of each cartouche below). Every cartouche is preceded by the phrase “ To the King of Upper Egypt ” and should be read as a continuation of the main offering formula in the upper register, so the full prayer for each king is: An offering-which-the-king gives… a thousand of bread, a thousand of beer… to the King of Upper Egypt [KING’S NAME]. Register 3 The offering formula is completed in the third register, where each column ends with the words “ As the gift of ” followed by Seti’s throne name and birth name repeated in alternating columns. Seti’s throne name Menmaatre “Established is the Justice of Re ” is preceded by the word “ king ” and followed by a determinative of a seated king wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt. His birth name Sety Merenptah " Man of Seth, beloved of Ptah " is preceded by “ son of Re ” and followed by a determinative of a seated king wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. Therefore, each of the 76 rulers in the King List can be given a personalised offering: An offering-which-the-king gives … a thousand of bread, a thousand of beer … to the King of Upper Egypt [KING’S NAME] … As the gift of king Menmaatre, King of Upper Egypt [OR] king Sety Merenptah, King of Lower Egypt. Full Kings List The Abydos King List covers Dynasty 1 to the start of Dynasty 19 but is not a complete list and deviates in places from other known king lists. It omits many rulers considered illegitimate and also includes 17 royal names not seen on any other King Lists. The missing kings come from periods of political instability or religious upheaval: First Intermediate Period kings including Mentuhotep I, Intef I, Intef II, Intef III (end of Dynasty 6 to the beginning of Dynasty 11. Female king Sobekneferu (end of Dynasty 12). Kings from the Second Intermediate Period (Dynasty 13-14). Kings from the Amarna Period (end of Dynasty 18) including (female king) Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Smenkhare, Tutankhamun and Ay. Besides providing the order of the Old Kingdom kings, the Abydos King List is the sole source to date of the names of many of the kings of Dynasty 7 and 8. It can be compared to the Karnak Kings List, the list in the Temple of Ramesses II at Karnak, the Palermo Stone, the Saqqara Kings List and the Turin Canon (the only list written on papyrus as a historical account rather than produced as a cultic device). Dynasty 1 Dynasty 2 Dynasty 3 Dynasty 4 Dynasty 5 Dynasty 6 The Dynasty 6 kings straddle the end of the top register and the beginning of the middle register. Cartouches of the kings of Dynasty 6: #34 Teti (commonly known as Teti), 35 Userkare (Userkare), 36 Meryre (Pepi I Meryre), 37 Merenre (Merenre Nemtyemsaf I), 38 Neferkare (Pepi II Neferkare) and 39 Merenre Saemsaf (Merenre Nemtyemsaf II). Dynasty 8 Dynasty 11-12 Dynasty 18 Dynasty 19 Translations The transliterations and translations of hieroglyphics come from Rosalie David’s book Temple Ritual at Abydos (2018, 240-41). Seti Inscription nṯr nfr Mn-mꜣʾt-Rʾ The perfect god, Menmaatre (Established is the Justice of Re) sꜣ Rʾ Sthy-mr-n-Ptḥ The son of Ra, Sety Merenptah (Man of Seth, beloved of Ptah) ḏd mdw in nsw Mn-mꜣʾt-Rʾ in nṯr r šbw.f wꜣḥ ḫt n nsyw-bityw nḏ-ḥr.k Ptḥ-Skr rsyw-inb.f m’I iry.i n k nw [ḫt] iri.n Ḥr n it.f Wsir Utterance by the king, Menmaatre. Bringing the god to his food, depositing an offering for the Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt. Greetings to thee, Ptah-Soker-Osiris, who-is-south-of-his-wall; come, that I may carry out for thee these [things] which Horus carried out for his father Osiris. Ramesses Inscription nis ḥnḳ in rpʾt sꜣ nsw sms n ẖt.f mr.f Rʾ-mss-s mꜣʾ-ḫrw Reciting praises by the hereditary prince, king’s son, the eldest, bodily, beloved son of the king, Ramesses, vindicated. Offering Formula irt ḥtp-di-nsw n Ptḥ-Skr-Wsir nb sṯyt ḥry-ib ḥwt Mn-Mꜣʿt-Rʿ wꜣḥ ḫt n nsywt-bityw in nsw-bit nb tꜣwy Mn-mꜣʿt-Rʿ sꜣ Rʿ Sthy-mr-n-Ptḥ Making-a-boon-which-the-king-gives for Ptah-Soker-Osiris, Lord of the Sanctuary of Soker, who is residing in the Mansion of Menmaatre. Depositing an offering for the Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, by the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, lord of the Two Lands, Menmaatre, son of Re, Sety Merenptah. ḫꜣ m t ḫꜣ m ḥnkt ḫꜣ m kꜣw ḫꜣ m ꜣpdw ḫꜣ m sntr ḫꜣ m mrḥt ḫꜣ m ssrw ḫꜣ m mhnt ḫꜣ m irp ḫꜣ m ḥtp-ntr m dd nsw Mn-mꜣʿt-Rʿ A 1,000 of bread, a 1,000 of beer, a 1,000 of cattle, a 1,000 of fowl, a 1,000 of incense, a 1,000 of unguent, a 1,000 of linen, a 1,000 of cloth, a 1,000 of wine, a 1,000 of god’s offering, as the gift of the king, Menmaatre. Register 1-2 n nsw [Unis] To the King of Upper Egypt [Unas]. Register 3 m dd nsw Mn-mꜣʾt-Rʾ nsw As the gift of King Menmaatre (Established is the Justice of Re), King of Upper Egypt. m dd bit Stẖy-mr-n-Ptḥ bit As the gift of King Sety Merenptah (Man of Seth, beloved of Ptah), King of Lower Egypt. Further Reading Pharaonic King Lists, Annals and Day Books (1986) by Donald B. Redford Sethy I, King of Egypt (2019) by Aidan Dodson Temple Ritual at Abydos (2018) by Rosalie David The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt (2000) by Richard H. Wilkinson The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos, Vol. I-IV (1933) by Amice Calverley and edited by Alan Gardiner The Weighing of Hunefer’s Heart Reproduction Details Type: Painted papyrus Date: c. 1285 BC, Dynasty 19, reign of Seti I Findspot: Presumed Tomb of Hunefer, Thebes (location unknown) Materials: Papyrus Size: Width 40cm, length 87.50cm Current location: British Museum, London (EA9901,3) Art Ref: DP23B The Weighing of Hunefer’s Heart In 1285 BC, a royal scribe called Hunefer put the finishing touches to what would become one of the most celebrated examples of ancient Egyptian funerary art. It was a scroll known as ‘The Book of Going Forth By Day’ which contained the instructions and spells he believed would allow him to reach the afterlife safely. Hunefer was buried with this papyrus scroll in the Theban hills, where they both remained until they were discovered 3,300 years later by archaeologists and ended up in the British Museum. At 5.5m long, this Book of the Dead contains columns of detailed instructions, hymns and spells punctuated by beautifully detailed illustrations of Hunefer and the gods. One of the most famous vignettes from the papyrus illustrates Chapter 125 and shows Hunefer navigating the halls of judgment. In the vignette, Hunefer is led into the Hall of Truth by Anubis and is greeted by the gods responsible for deciding whether his soul will enter the afterlife or suffer a terrible fate. His heart has been placed upon a set of scales, and Anubis is weighing it against a feather personifying Maat, the concept of truth, justice and cosmic balance. As the source of Hunefer’s emotions, intellect and character, his heart represents the good and bad aspects of his life, and it now stands witness for him in the trial. This is a critical moment in Hunefer’s journey; if he fails this test his heart will be devoured by the terrifying beast called Ammit which sits at the scales and his soul will not be able to reach the afterlife. To ensure this doesn’t happen, he recites the words to spell 30B, instructing his heart not to betray him during the weighing and to be found in balance with Maat. This spell is destined to work, and Thoth, scribe of the gods, proclaims to the assembled deities that Hunefer has “been found true on the great balance”. Horus leads Hunefer to a shrine in which his father Osiris sits enthroned, accompanied by the goddesses Isis and Nephthys, and is welcomed to the afterlife. The Scales Hunefer can be found in the bottom left being led by the hand of Anubis into the Hall of Truth. He is shown as a living man with braided hair and a small square beard, wearing fine white linen, bracelets, and a broad collar. The focus of the scene is the balance scales in the centre surrounded by gods. In the left pan is Hunefer’s heart, and it is being weighed against the feather in the right pan representing Maat, the divine personification of truth and rightful order. The scales are topped with the figure of Maat in the form of a goddess with a feather on her head, so she literally and figuratively oversees the weighing. To pacify his heart so it won’t speak against him during the trial, Hunefer is speaking the words of Spell 30B. The text of the spell varies slightly across different versions of the Book of the Dead but generally emphasises the purity of the heart and the individual's righteousness in life. This spell was so important that it also appeared on stone heart-shaped amulets placed inside the mummy wrappings, giving it its alternative name of the Heart Scarab spell. Here it says: "Do not stand against me as a witness, do not oppose me the court! Do not make my name stink in front of the great god, Lord of the West!" Kneeling on a white shrine before the scales is Anubis, the jackal-headed god of the dead and embalming. He is shown wearing a strapped vest with a fish-scale pattern, an archaic and unfashionable garment in the New Kingdom which has been used to recognise the great antiquity of the old god. Anubis is performing his role of the Guardian of the Scales and is steadying the plumb bob of the scale’s balance that is looped around a peg in the shape of a Maat feather, ready to declare the result. To the right of the scales sits Ammit, or ‘She Who Swallows the Dead’, a demonic composite of ancient Egypt’s most terrifying animals, described in the hieroglyphic inscription as “Her front is a crocodile, her rear a hippopotamus, her middle a lion”. If Hunefer fails this test, Ammit will spring forward and devour Hunefer’s heart, leaving him incomplete and damned for eternity. Overseeing the weighing of Hunefer’s heart is Thoth, the ibis-headed scribe of the gods. He wears a white sash across his chest, the typical garb of a lector priest and holds a scribal palette and a reed brush, ready to record the result. Hunefer’s spell has clearly worked because Thoth informs the assembly of gods and goddesses witnessing the judgment: "Look, I am recording the name of the Osiris, the Royal Scribe Hunefer. His heart has come from the scales and hasn't been found faulty." The Ennead In the top register, Hunefer can be seen kneeling before an offering table with his hands raised in adoration of the company of deities seated before him. These gods are witnessing the weighing of Hunefer’s heart and passing final judgment upon hearing Thoth’s record of the ceremony. Above each is their name in cursive hieroglyphs and they are picked out in alternating shrouds of green, white, and gold. From left to right they are: Ra, the falcon-headed sun god. Atum, the creator god. Shu, the god of air and atmosphere. Tefnut, the lion-headed goddess of moisture and rain. Geb, the god of the earth. Nut, the goddess of the sky. Horus, the god associated with kingship and protection. Isis, the goddess of motherhood and fertility. Nephthys, the goddess of mourning and the night. Hu: the god of authority and divine utterance. Sia: the god of perception and wisdom. Southern Road: the goddess of the path taken by the sun during the day. Northern Road: the god of the path taken by the sun during the night. Western Road: the goddess of the path taken by the sun during sunset, and the route to the afterlife. Osiris Shrine Having successfully passed the test and proclaimed worthy by the gathered gods and goddesses, Hunefer is led by the falcon-headed god Horus to a shrine decorated with lotus columns draped, fabric flags, and topped with golden royal cobras (uraeus). Like Anubis, Horus is shown wearing the traditional clothing associated with the old gods and he carries an ankh, the life symbol, in his hand. With a gesture of the other hand, Horus presents Hunefer to his father Osiris and the goddesses Isis and Nephthys with the words: "Look, I am introducing to you the Osiris Hunefer, true of voice. He has been judged by the scales." Hunefer stands with a bent back, a pose used by officials to pay respect to their superiors. Before him is "Osiris, the greatest of Westerners", the god of death and the underworld, who sits on a golden throne. In his hands are the crook and flail, symbols of his power and authority and on his head, he wears a tall atef crown decorated with plumed feathers. Osiris is wrapped in a white shroud and is shown with green skin, not to represent death but to evoke the verdant vegetation that emerges from the fertile soil of the Nile floodplain after the annual inundation. Green represents the vitality and rejuvenation of the dead as they pass through the cycle of death and rebirth in the afterlife under Osiris's guidance. Standing behind Osiris with their hands raised in welcome are the sister goddesses of Isis and Nephthys. They are here to protect Hunefer in his journey to the afterlife. Both had roles to play in the resurrection of Osiris after his murder at the hands of Seth and protect Hunefer. Beneath Osiris’ throne is a pool of water from which green shoots and a lotus flower emerge. The lotus symbolises the cycle of life, death, and rebirth as the flower was seen to arise from the murky depths of the water each day, blooming anew. Its presence reinforces Osiris’ association with rebirth and regeneration. It suggests that he, like the lotus, has the power to bring forth new life from the waters of the underworld. Standing on the lotus flower are the Four Sons of Horus, a quartet of gods that assist in the preservation and protection of Hunefer’s body in the afterlife. Qebehsenuef is responsible for protecting Hunefer’s intestines, Hapi his lungs, Duamutef his stomach and Imsety his liver. They are shown in shrouds with human heads and curved beards but are more commonly seen on canopic jars with the heads of a falcon, baboon, jackal, and a masked man. Further Reading The Complete Book of The Dead of Hunefer by Richard Parkinson, 2010 British Museum object record Antelope in the Desert Valley: Naqada Decorated Ware Reproduction Details Object: Deep bowl Material: Marl clay pottery Date: c. 3650-3300 BC Period: Predynastic, Naqada II Findspot: Unknown provenance. Purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art from Maurice Nahman in Cairo in 1912. Dimensions: height 24.3 x width 24 x rim diameter 23.2 cm Current Location: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Accession Number 12.182.41 Reproduction Number: DP94 Naqada Pottery Decorated Ware (D-Ware) originated during the Naqada II and III periods of predynastic Egypt, approximately 3500-3000 BC. Crafted from fine marl clay, fired to achieve a light red or buff hue, these ceramics typically feature intricate designs painted in dark brown and dark red. Produced in select workshops near the clay source, D-Ware was extensively traded across Egypt. The earliest examples are decorated with simple spirals and zigzag lines, but these were quickly followed by scenes featuring animals, plants, water, boats and people in rivers, desert valleys, and mountain environments. In an era before the hieroglyphic writing system, the pottery decoration from this period provides valuable insights into the beliefs, practices, and daily life of the people of ancient Egypt. They serve as a visual language through which we can explore their worldview, societal structures, and cultural practices. The presence of depictions of animals, plants, and landscapes can tell us about their environment and the resources available to them and the symbolism and motifs used can shed light on their religious and spiritual beliefs. This specific artefact showcases three bands of decoration portraying various species of antelope being pursued in a mountainous desert landscape. Lower Band In the lower band, larger antelope with elongated tails and twisted horns are depicted amidst droopy-leafed plants, likely representing sedges or palm trees—a symbol of Upper Egypt in later Egyptian art. Triangular peaks signify the hills and mountains where these creatures roamed. The sets of three N shapes seen above groups of antelope or amidst the plants are believed to represent birds in flight, though some interpretations suggest they might serve as a numerical or tally system. Upper Band In the central band smaller antelope with upright tails also run in a hilly environment, whilst above them encircling the rim of the bowl is a stylised representation of the nets being used in the hunting of these creatures. Interrupting the recurring motif of antelope are three human figures: two men holding sticks, possibly adorned with penis sheaths, flank a woman or goddess who raises her hands above her disc-shaped head. This enigmatic figure frequently appears in Naqada pottery, often depicted in a celebratory or dancing posture amidst scenes of hunts like this or on boats, such as in this example depicting a river procession. Further information Book - Craig Patch, D., 2011. The Dawn of Egyptian Art Article - Hendrickx, S., 2013. Hunting and Social Complexity in Predynastic Egypt Video - Hendrickx, S., Friedman, R. F. & Craig Patch, D., 2012. The Dawn of Egyptian Art Object record - Metropolitan Museum of Art. Deep bowl depicting people, animals, and plants What did the Ancient Egyptians Call Memphis? A Map of Ancient Egyptian Town Names Read anything about Ancient Egypt and you’ll soon come across an obvious etymological curiosity; most places are known by their Greek, Roman, Arabic or even English names, rather than their ancient Egyptian names. This reflects the enormous breadth of time many of these settlements have been occupied, but it doesn’t help if you’re reading a piece of ancient Egyptian literature. Where’s this Iunu they keep talking about? It doesn’t sound much like Heliopolis, does it? I wanted to find out what the ancient Egyptians called their towns and cities and create my own map as a reference guide. The ancient Egyptian names are given first, with the most commonly used modern name given in brackets. So, what did they call Egypt? During the Old Kingdom, Egypt was referred to as Kemet, which means “the Black land” and they called themselves Remtju ni Kemet, meaning the "People of the Black Land". The term refers to the rich soil found in the Nile Valley and Delta which demarcated the inhabitable land. This was contrasted with Deshret, or the "Red Land", which described the deserts of Egypt. Later, Egyptians referred to their country as Hwt-ka-Ptah, which means "House of the Ka of Ptah", referring to one of Egypt's earliest gods, Ptah. This was also the name of the administrative centre and capital of Egypt, Menefer (Memphis). The Egyptians themselves divided Egypt into Ta Shemau, meaning "the Land of Reeds” (Upper Egypt) and Ta Mehu, meaning "the Land of Papyrus” (Lower Egypt). The division between the two was retained after the unification of the kingdom in the Predynastic period, and the pharaoh was often known as the “King of Upper and Lower Egypt”. This concept of duality is a constantly recurring feature of the Egyptian civilisation and was echoed in the pairing of different gods and goddesses to represent Upper and Lower Egypt, notably the Two Ladies, Nekhbet and Wadjet. Even the symbols of authority reinforced the idea; Lower Egypt was represented by the symbol of a red crown, also called Deshret, whilst Upper Egypt was with a white crown, known as Hedjet or “White one”. When combined they formed the Sekhemti or Pschent, the double crown of Egypt. Lower Egypt’s Major Sites Lower Egypt was known as Ta Mehu, meaning “the Land of the Papyrus”. The area extends from Egypt’s coast on the Mediterranean Sea to the southern suburbs of modern-day Cairo, encompassing the fertile Delta of the Nile. Its capital was at Menefer (Memphis), whose patron goddess was the cobra goddess Wadjet. As an area, it was less geographically and culturally isolated from the surrounding ancient world than Upper Egypt to the south. Busiri (Abusir) Located just north of Saqqara it served as one of the main elite cemeteries for the capital city of Menefer (Memphis) during the Old Kingdom’s 5th Dynasty. The necropolis contained 14 pyramids as well as solar temples and was thought to have been chosen as a site because nearby Giza and Saqqara had become full. Dahshur A royal necropolis located in the desert on the west bank of the Nile close to the capital Menefer (Memphis). It contains five of the original 11 pyramids which chart the transition from step-sided pyramids to smooth-sided pyramids, including the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid of King Sneferu and the Black Pyramid of King Amenemhat III. Djanet (Tanis) A city on the now-silted Tanitic branch of the Nile Delta, which developed in the 19th dynasty. Tanis became the seat of power of the pharaohs of the 21st- 22nd Dynasty after Pi-Ramesses' abandonment. The major site was the Great Temple of Amun-Ra, with minor temples dedicated to Mut and Khonsu who, along with Amun-Ra, formed the Theban Triad. Djedu (Busiris) An ancient town and nome in the Delta on the western bank of the Damietta Branch of the Nile near Zau (Sais). It was regarded as one of the birthplaces of Osiris and the festival of Isis held there was one of the most popular and well attended in the Egyptian calendar. Hut-waret (Avaris) Known as the “House of the Region”, Hut-waret was a major administrative capital of the Hyksos and other traders and the capital of Egypt. The Hyksos occupied it from the 13th Dynasty to the Second Intermediate Period until its capture by King Ahmose I in the 18th Dynasty. Iunu (Heliopolis) One of Egypt’s oldest cities, Iunu, meaning "The Pillars", was a major religious centre occupied since the Predynastic Period. It was the principal cult centre of Ra and Atum, giving it its Greek name ‘City of the Sun’. The temple of Ra was a depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history of all the Egyptians. Khem (Letopolis) The city was a centre of worship of the deity Khenty-khem, a form of the god Horus. The site and its deity are mentioned from as far back as the Old Kingdom but the only known monuments remaining date to the reigns of pharaohs from the Late Period. Menefer (Memphis) Menefer, meaning "enduring and beautiful", was the capital of ancient Egypt during the Old Kingdom and occupied a strategic position at the mouth of the Nile Delta between upper and lower Egypt. It thrived as a regional centre for commerce, trade, and religion and was the centre for the worship of Ptah, the god of creation and artworks, along with the Memphis triad, consisting Ptah, his consort Sekhmet, and their son Nefertem. Per-Bast (Bubastis) Its name means "House of Bast" and it was notable as a centre of worship for the feline goddess Bastet, and the principal depository in Egypt of mummies of cats. It became a royal residence after Shoshenq I, the first ruler and founder of the 22nd Dynasty, became pharaoh and reached its height during the 23rd Dynasty. Per-Wadjet (Buto) Originally two cities of Pe and Dep, Per-Wadjet or “House of Wadjet”, was known for its temple dedicated to Wadjet, the patron deity of Lower Egypt often represented as a cobra. Her oracle was in her nearby temple and an annual festival was held there in the goddess's honour. Piemro (Naucratis) It was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Greek colony in Egypt and there was a symbiotic interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture through its port and trade links. The exact date of its foundation is unknown but accounts from Strabo and Athenaeus suggest the reign of Psammetichus I. Khito (Rosetta) Named from the hieratic meaning “the populace”, Khito was a minor settlement that was inhabited since the early dynasty period and located at the mouth of the Polpetin branch of the Nile. Rhacotis (Alexandria) Located west of the now-silted Canopic branch of the Nile, Rhacotis meaning “construction site” was a port within the Nile Delta that was reliably accessible to large ships, and supplied enough water to support a city via canals. It became the Egyptian quarter of Alexandria as the city grew following the arrival of Alexander the Great. Saqqara The necropolis for the ancient Egyptian capital, Menefer (Memphis), features the pyramids of seventeen Egyptian kings from the 1st Dynasty as well as several mastaba tombs and funerary monuments of high officials. It includes the oldest complete stone building complex known in history, the Step Pyramid of Djoser. Sena (Pelusium) An important city in the eastern extremes of the Nile Delta, Sena stood as a border fortress, a place of great strength, on the frontier, protecting Egypt from incursions from Syria and the sea. It was directly exposed to attack by any invaders and was often besieged and the decisive battle which transferred the throne of the Pharaohs to Cambyses II, king of the Persians took place here. Tamiat (Damietta) A coastal port whose name means “the ability”, possibly because it could combine the salt water of the Mediterranean Sea and the freshwater of the Nile in one place. Originally closer to the sea than it is at present, the town declined with the development of Alexandria. Tipersis (Giza) Close to the capital of Menefer, the Giza Plateau contains a huge complex of royal mortuary and sacred structures, including the Great Sphinx, the Great Pyramid of Giza, and several other large pyramids and temples. It was used from the Pre-dynastic until the Late period, though the major sites were constructed during the 4th Dynasty. Wadi Natrun A valley located below sea level and the Nile containing several alkaline lakes, natron-rich salt deposits, salt marshes and freshwater marshes. The alkali lakes of the Natron Valley provided the Egyptians with the sodium bicarbonate used in mummification and faience making. The Egyptians fought the Libyans for control of the area, overcoming them and annexing the eastern side of the desert. Zau (Sais) A town in the Western Nile Delta on the Canopic branch of the Nile, it became the seat of power during the 24th Dynasty and the Saite 26th Dynasty during the Late Period. The city's patron goddess was Neith, whose cult is attested as early as the 1st Dynasty and it was said to contain the grave of Osiris. Sinai & Beyond The Sinai Peninsula is situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south and acts as a land bridge between Asia and Africa. From the time of the First Dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai on a seasonal basis, giving the area its name Ta Mefkat, meaning “the Land of Turquoise”. A north-south reed-lined waterway is shown on ancient maps called Ta Denit, “the Dividing Waters”. Due to its proximity to the Levant it has historically been the centre of conflict between Egypt and various states of Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Azzati (Gaza) This city served as Egypt's administrative capital in Canaan and was the residence of the Egyptian governor of the region. A caravan point of strategic importance from the earliest times, it was constantly involved in the wars between Egypt and Syria and the Mesopotamian powers. Gaza was in Egyptian hands for 350 years, until it was settled by the Philistines. Gebel Athak (Timna) The largest and oldest copper mining site in modern-day Yemen, mining activity by the Egyptians and Midianites at Timna reached its peak during the 19th and 20th Dynasties. Ramses II, during the campaign against the country of Edom, is said to have pacified the region and organised the lasting presence of Egyptians. Khetiu Mefkat (Wadi Maghareh) Site containing pharaonic monuments, turquoise and copper mines used extensively throughout Egypt’s history. They called it Khetiu Mefkat, meaning "the Terraces of Turquoise". Robihwa (Rafah) The city has for significant periods been a part of the Egyptian Empire and formed a border between Egypt and the Lavant. It was also a major location on the battle route towards Egyptian settlements in Anatolia and Levant. Rusalim (Jerusalem) Jerusalem became a vassal to Egypt after the Egyptian New Kingdom under Ahmose I and Thutmose I had reunited Egypt and expanded into the Levant. They called the city Canaanite city Rusalim, probably meaning "City of Shalem" after a Canaanite god of dusk. The Battle of Djahy between Ramesses III and the Sea Peoples marked the beginning of the decline in power of the Egyptians in the region. Serabit el-Khadim A locality where turquoise was mined extensively featuring mining camps and a long-lived Temple of Hathor, the Egyptian goddess who was favoured as a protector in desert regions and known as the “Lady of Turquoise”. Tjaru (El Qantara) A frontier town in the inhospitable desert region, the fortress at Tjaru was the main fortress protecting the Way of Horus and was said to be a place of banishment for criminals. The Way of Horus Egypt’s eastern frontier, this route connected Egypt with Canaan starting at Tjaru and ending at Rafah. At least 11 strategically placed fortresses lined the route, guarding a northern access point to Egypt, with temples dedicated to Horus. Seti I Beneath the Persea Tree Reproduction Details Object: Painted bas-relief Date: c. 1290-1279 BC Period: Dynasty 19, New Kingdom Dimensions: 375 x 260 cm Findspot: Temple of Seti I, Abydos (upper scene of the west wall of the Second Hypostyle Hall between the Chapels of Re-Horakhty and Ptah) Reproduction Note: This reproduction was made with reference to photographs of the current site by Heidi Kontkanen (Figure 3), Amice Calverley’s bas-relief reproduction in ‘The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos’ (Figure 2), and Nina de Garis Davies’ colour reproduction in Ancient Egyptian Paintings Vol III (Figure 7). Print Reference: DP76A Seti’s Great Temple of Abydos Seti I was the second pharaoh of Dynasty 19, ruling c. 1290-1279 BC, and the father of Ramesses II. His birthname Sety Merenptah meaning ‘Man of Seth, beloved of Ptah’ indicated he was consecrated to the god Seth, but upon ascending to the throne he took the prenomen Menmaatre, meaning ‘Established is the Justice of Re’. Among the many achievements of the popular king’s reign, his temple at Abydos, the ancient cult centre of Osiris and burial place of the first kings, represents a high point in craftsmanship and ambition. Also known as the Great Temple of Abydos or the Memnonium, the temple was commissioned by the king to provide a place to honour the gods and his eternal soul. Unlike most temples, it was dedicated to more than one god. As well as the deified form of Seti I, it also included chapels honouring Ptah, Re-Horakhty, Amun-Re, Osiris, Isis, and Horus (Figure 1). Figure 1 – Plan of the Temple of Seti I with the location of my reproduced scene marked in red (From ‘The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos’ Vol. 1, Fig. 1) The temple has an unusual L-shaped ground plan with a terrace, pylons, courts, hypostyle halls, chapels, and multiple storage chambers (Figure 1). It was first described by Flinders Petrie in 1901 and subsequently documented in 1933 in a richly illustrated four-volume series featuring exquisite reproductions by Amice Calverley (Figure 2). Only a few years later, Nina de Garis Davies published her own colourised version of the scene which remains the most useful reference version today (Figure 7). The temple was unfinished at the time of the pharaoh’s death and completed by his son and heir, Ramesses II. It is famous for the beauty and quality of its decoration, and the presence of the invaluable ‘Abydos King List’. This relief records the names of 76 rulers from the previous 1,600 years (but omits the ‘illegitimate’ rulers from the Amarna period at the end of Dynasty 18). You can explore a 3D model of the Kings List and models of some of the chapels in the temple made by David Anderson to help you visualise the space. The Second Hypostyle Hall My reproduction shows the upper scene of the west wall of the Second Hypostyle Hall between the cult chapels of Re-Horakhty and Ptah. The hall contains 36 sandstone papyrus columns with bud capitals and is decorated with scenes of Seti I kneeling before the gods. Seven barrel-roofed chapels dedicated to seven gods are accessed from the hall, and each is richly decorated in bas-relief. They show scenes of the king making offerings to each chapel’s resident god and receiving symbols of life, dominion, and royal power in return. Figure 2 – Reproduction by Amice Calverley of the same scene (From ‘The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos’ Vol. IV, Pl. 25) At the time of Seti’s death, the carving and colouring of the bas-relief in the second hypostyle had not been completed, so only those on the west wall had the final layers of paint applied. When work was abandoned, the sculptors had completed the first stage of cutting the bas-relief and were in the process of engraving the finer detailing where it had been laid out in paint, or colouring the final reliefs. Seti's successors respected the reliefs in the second hypostyle hall, but none finished painting them. My reproduction features one of the few scenes which received its final stage of decoration, and though faded, the colours used are a familiar palette of colours based on naturally occurring materials mixed to create a variety of shades: Chalk, gypsum carbonates and sulphates of lime were used to create white. Carbon in the form of soot was used to create black, which was mixed with white to create shades of grey. Earth ochres were used for red, yellow and brown. Orpiment, an arsenic sulfide mineral found in volcanic fumaroles, was used on rare occasions to create yellow and orange. Artificial compounds of powdered copper, malachite or azurite were used to create blue (Egyptian blue) and green (green frit). Symbolism In this scene, Seti kneels in the shade of a Persea tree between the gods Ptah and Re-Horakhty, who are depicted seated upon thrones and offering the king divine symbols of protection. It is a harmonising scene, using the central figure of Seti and the tree to connect the two gods’ chapels. As Nina de Garis Davies commented, “…the beautiful design does honour not only to the pharaoh who built the temples, but also to the two gods outside whose adjoining chapels the scene is found.” The quality of the bas-relief in this scene is some of the finest in Egyptian art and provides the figures with a wonderful lifelike 3D quality. Amice Calverley remarked that “…the figures show a sharper curve where the bone structure is near the surface, as in head, nose, shoulder and shin, whereas the softer texture of flesh is graduated almost to the background, each anatomical detail indicated with meticulous care within the limits of prescribed convention.” Figure 3 – Photograph of the bas-relief as it looks today © Heidi Kontkanen The Persea Tree Also known as the Ished Tree or the Tree of Life, the sacred Persea Tree of Heliopolis was a potent symbol associated with the rising sun and linked to the concept of eternal life. The fruit of the tree was thought to provide knowledge of the cycles of time, and the king's titles are often shown being inscribed on its leaves by the gods (Figure 4). Figure 4 – My reproduction of a partially destroyed wall relief from the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple dedicated to Seti’s son Ramesses II in Thebes. The scene depicts the deities Atum, Seshat and Thoth inscribing the name of Ramesses into the fruit of the Persea tree, guaranteeing Ramesses an everlasting reign and innumerable jubilees. In this scene, Seti kneels before the gods in front of the tree, whose branches sweep upwards following the line of the king's figure, forming a crown above his head. Ptah and Re-Horakhty are writing Seti’s name upon the leaves of the tree using brushes made from the rush called Juncus maritimus, used by scribes for painting outlines. These are often seen in art attached to the long scribal palettes holding paint, such as the one held by Re-Horakhty. In mythology, the tree was said to be guarded by Mau, the Great Cat of the sun god Re, who protected it from his enemy Apep (Apophis), the serpent of chaos (Figure 5). In Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead, Re in the form of Mau is described as: “…the Cat which fought near the Persea Tree in Anu [Heliopolis] on the night when the foes of Neb-er-tcher [a primordial god of Creation] were destroyed…” Figure 5 - Mau, "The Great Cat of Heliopolis" killing the enemy of the sun, Apep, before the Persea Tree (from the Tomb of Inherkau in Deir el-Medina (TT359) © kairoinfo4u) The Persea tree appears throughout history in religious texts and literature, notably in the Tale of the Two Brothers, where the tree has the power to reanimate a dead man, and whose splinters impregnate his devious wife. In art, the tree features in illustrated copies of the Book of the Dead and temple reliefs, including those at the Ramesseum in Thebes (Figure 4) and the First Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Karnak. Pharoah Seti Seti is shown bare-footed and bare-chested, with an elaborate pleated loincloth and belt, and wearing the blue crown upon his head. Around his neck is a broad wasekh collar, and on his wrists are jewelled bracelets. The king is shown kneeling on the hieroglyph for an alabaster basin that represents ‘festivals’ in hieroglyphic writing. During the carving stage, the sculptor mistakenly gave the basin the pattern of a woven basket (the hieroglyph neb, meaning ‘lord’), which the artists tried to correct during the later painting stage. Figure 6 - A detailed view of the jewel Seti is offering to Ptah Seti is offering Ptah a cunningly wrought inlaid jewel that is packed with symbolism indicating its purpose of granting unending jubilees to the king (Figure 6). The jewel shows the god Heh, who represented the concept of 'millions' or 'infinite time', squatting upon the same festival basin as Seti. In his hands, he holds two notched palm branches signifying the hieroglyph ‘renpet’ meaning 'years'. The palm branches end with a tadpole sitting upon a shen ring, which had the meaning of ‘hundred thousand’. Above the god Heh is the name of Menmaatre (Seti I), which is protected by two royal cobras (uraeus) with shen rings looped around their tails. One rears up next to a flowering rush representing Upper Egypt, whilst the other is flanked by a papyrus reed representing Lower Egypt. The God Ptah Figure 7 – Nina de Garis Davies colour reproduction of the same scene (from Ancient Egyptian Paintings, Vol. II, Pl. 86) On the left of the king is the god Ptah, or ‘He-of-the-beautiful-face’. He sits on an elaborate throne within a golden shrine, which itself rests upon a plinth in the shape of the hieroglyph for Maat. This symbol of stability and truth is decorated with the ankh and was-sceptre, representing life and power. He dips his reed pen into the paint in the shell he holds and appears to be about to write his approval of Seti’s desire for unending jubilees embodied in the jewel in his hand. Ptah’s approval of Seti is reinforced by the pectoral suspended from his neck, which picks out his throne name Menmaatre in hieroglyphs and is flanked by the goddess Maat and two cobras representing Upper and Lower Egypt. He wears jewelled bracelets and a broad collar with a distinctive menkhet counterpoise over his right shoulder. Ptah, the chief deity of Memphis, is one of the oldest Egyptian gods, first mentioned in Dynasty 1. He was considered to be a creator god and was particularly associated with craftsmen and funerary traditions. Ptah had several distinctive artistic attributes rarely seen in other gods, including a straight beard instead of a curved one, a tight-fitting skullcap instead of a headdress, and a counterpoise necklace with a rounded top and flared bottom. He is often depicted with elements that link him to the god Osiris, with a white shroud and green skin, which represent both the pallor of death and the fertility of new growth. When Nina de Garis Davies created her colour reproduction of the scene (Figure 7), she noted that the “only details depending on paint alone, without relief, are the decorated matting behind Ptah, the coloured bands of the pillars of his shrine, and the markings of the cobras on the roof.” The God Re-Horakhty To the right of Seti is the falcon-headed god Re-Horakhty, who like Ptah, sits on a throne that rests upon the Maat hieroglyph. He dips his reed pen into the paint in the scribal palette in his hand and is already writing his assent upon the leaves of the tree, as numerous as the festivals to which Seti aspires. Upon his head sits a red solar disk encircled by a protective royal cobra. In the earliest days of Egypt’s history, the sun god Re was merged with the falcon god to become Re-Horahkty or ‘Horus of the two horizons’. He represented the sun as it travelled across the sky (while Khepri and Atum represented the rising and setting suns respectively). As a form of the principal deity Re, he was worshipped throughout Egypt but was particularly associated with Heliopolis. He was considered to be the patron of the Pharaoh and the elite classes and a potent symbol of royal power. A note on the missing hieroglyphs… In the original scene, the hieroglyphs above Ptah describe him as ‘Lord of truth, and father of the gods in the House of Menmaatre’ (Figure 8). A similar dedication would have appeared to the left of Re-Horakhty, but these have unfortunately been lost and the space they occupied filled with structural concrete. Due to the incomplete nature of Re-Horakhty’s hieroglyphs, I took the decision not to reproduce them in my copy to maintain the balance of the composition. Figure 8 – Detail of the hieroglyphs describing Ptah (From ‘The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos’ Vol. IV, Pl. 25) Summary As with most pieces of royal propaganda, this scene is all about demonstrating the king’s legitimacy through divine approval. The jewel Seti offers Ptah represents his desire to rule Upper and Lower Egypt for millions of years, and the gods are granting their approval of this by writing his name into the myriad leaves of the Persea tree. This echoes many other scenes throughout the Great Temple of Abydos, in which Seti is depicted receiving symbols of power and everlasting life from a wide variety of gods. Further Reading Ancient Egyptian Paintings, Vol. I (1936), Vol. II, Plate 86 (1936), and Vol. III, p.164-65 (1936) by Nina de Garis Davies and edited by Alan Gardiner Sethy I, King of Egypt (2019) by Aidan Dodson The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt (2000) by Richard H. Wilkinson The Monuments of Seti I: Epigraphic, Historical, and Art Historical Analysis, p.171 (1998) by Peter J Brand The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos, Vol. I-IV (1933) by Amice Calverley and edited by Alan Gardiner Exploring the Fascinating History of Prehistoric Nile Pottery with Hippo Motifs Reproduction Details Object Type: Cross-lined ware bowl Date: c. 3850–3650 BC Period: Predynastic, Naqada I Findspot: Mesaid (Mesa'eed) tomb 26, no. 6 [M/26/6] Dimensions: Height 6.8 x Diameter 19.4 cm Material: Nile silt clay Current location: Boston Museum of Fine Arts Inventory number: 11.312 My reproduction of a prehistoric white cross-lined ware bowl from the Naqada I period (c. 3850–3650 BC). It depicts three stylised hippos gathered around a central rosette representing a pool of water with zigzag cliffs beyond representing the horizon. Wild creatures such as hippos and crocodiles are often found depicted on this type of pottery found in graves and it’s thought they were intended to impart their powers on the vessels' owners, granting them success hunting and protection from danger in the afterlife. Cross-lined ware was handmade of reddish Nile silt clay, burnished, coated with a thin red slip, and then decorated with linear patterns in thick, creamy white paint. Most of the best examples come from tombs, suggesting they may have been made specifically as funerary offerings. Predynastic Art Heartwarming Family Moments: Inherkhau and His Grandchildren Details Object Type: Tomb Painting Material: Fresco Date: c. 1186–1149 BC Period: Dynasty 20, Reign of Ramesses III- Ramesses IV Findspot: North Wall, Second Chamber, Tomb TT359, Deir el-Medina Reproduction Number: DP93 Introduction This reproduction is based on a fresco painted onto the walls of the Tomb of Inherkhau (TT359) at Dier el-Medina in Thebes, dating to Dynasty 20. Inherkhau lived in the worker's village and was a foreman who had particular responsibility for the construction of royal tombs during the reigns of Ramesses III and IV. Despite not being part of the elite, Inherkhau was one of the handful of craftsmen who were able to not only afford two tombs (TT359 and TT299) but also able to employ talented artists to beautifully decorate them with polychromatic frescoes. The rest of the craftsmen at Dier el-Medina had to be content with chapels and chambers with plain whitewashed walls. This scene shows Inherkhau seated beside his wife Wabet whilst four of their grandchildren play with birds around them. The three girls and a boy are naked with shaved heads and sidelocks of hair, characteristics used in ancient Egyptian art to symbolise youth. The grandchildren are not directly named, and instead referred to by their relationship with their parents, and it’s unclear whether they share their parent’s names. From left to right they are: The daughter of his daughter Anuket-ta-nakht. The son of his son Inherkau. The daughter of his daughter Baketptah. The daughter of his daughter Henutwaty. Grandfather Inherkhau Inherkhau is wearing a short square beard of the living and is seated facing the (theological) east, the land of the living. He wears sandals on his feet and a white linen gown which balloons out in front, with large pleated sleeves and a triangular pleated apron at the front. He wears a large curly wig which is fringed at the bottom edge but no jewellery. Before him is a stand holding a platter of what could be figs or the fruit of the persea tree. He isn’t named in the hieroglyphs but is in the wider scene this vignette comes from and his grandson at his feet shares his name. Grandmother Wabet Beside Inherkhau and seated on a black lion-footed chair is his wife Wabet, also known as Wab ("the Pure"), who embraces her husband from behind. She is shown barefoot and wearing a similarly opulent gown and earrings made of ivory. Wabet isn’t named in the hieroglyphs, but appears frequently beside her husband throughout the tomb’s decoration, giving us her name and titles. She is referred to by the commonplace title of Mistress of the House, Chantress of Hathor and Chantress of Amun, which shows that she had a function in the temple of Karnak. The Grandchildren Four young children play at the knees of their grandparents. Standing behind Wabet on the far left is a naked girl described as The daughter of his daughter Anuket-ta-nakht. She cradles a young duckling to her chest whilst offering out a speckled pigeon with the other. Like the other children depicted, her head is shaved and her hair is cut into flat locks that lie on the forehead and coiling locks at the back and sides. Like the other girls, she is decorated with jewellery including bracelets, necklaces, anklets and earrings made of ivory discs. Next comes a young boy identified as The son of his son Inherkhau who stands with his hands on his grandmother’s knees. He is shown completely naked and without jewellery. Beside him is another girl called The daughter of his daughter Baketptah, who clasps an egg to her chest and holds out a speckled pigeon to the fourth grandchild. As she plays, her grandfather runs his fingers through a lock of her hair, in a surprisingly intimate depiction of family love. Finally, at the far right is The daughter of his daughter Henutwaty, who sits on the feet of her grandfather Inherkhao and is taking the pigeon being offered by Baketptah’s daughter. Translation This translation was provided by the wonderful Reddit scribe u/zsl454 on r/AncientEgyptian in response to my plea for help identifying the damaged hieroglyphics. They identified and located the names in Die Ägyptischen Personennamen by Hermann Ranke, a fantastic resource if you are looking for the spellings of ancient Egyptian names. This reproduction is accurate to what was drawn on the wall by the ancient artists, but you can this that this style is a less formal shorthand style of depicting hieroglyphs when compared to the ‘standard’ way shown below. From left to right: Columns 1 & 2 - The daughter of his daughter Anuket-ta-nakht, True of Voice. Column 3 - The son of his son Inherkhau. Column 4 - He says: [give] the fledgling to me! Column 5 - The daughter of his daughter Baketptah, True of Voice. Column 6 - The daughter of his daughter Henutwaty, True of Voice. Further Information Reddit discussion about the translation of this artwork The Two Tombs of Inerkhau on Osiris.net The Tomb of Foreman Inherkhau on Touregypt.net Bruyère, Bernard. Rapport préliminaire sur les fouilles de Deir el Medineh (Fouilles de l'IFAO). Le Caire. 1930, p 32-70 Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004, p 123. Ranke, Hermann. Die Ägyptischen Personennamen, Bd. 1: Verzeichnis der Namen. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin, 1935, p. 69, 90, 242 Inamun Making Offerings to Osiris, God of the Dead (Stela of Inamun Nayesnebu) Reproduction Details Object Type: Votive stela Date: c. 747-656 BC Period: Dynasty 25, Third Intermediate Period Findspot: Abydos, Egypt (suggested) Dimensions: Height 30 cm Material: Creamy-white stone, possibly limestone Current location: Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery Inventory number: H506 Print Reference: DP63B My reproduction stone stela from Abydos made in c. 747-656 BC enabled votive offerings to be given to the deceased spirit of a woman called Inamun Nayesnebu. Inamun stands beneath the text wearing a fine linen dress and her natural hair fastened with a band. Before her is an offering table laden with bread, fowl, oxen and lotus flowers, upon which she is pouring a libation from a small bottle. The offerings are being given to the mummified human-headed god Osiris, who holds a flail and a sceptre and is wearing his distinctive plumed headdress. Spreading its protective wings over all beneath it is a winged sun disc with two uraei cobras, representing royal and divine power. The nine columns of hieroglyphic text on the stela give a variant of the popular offering formula, intended to provide ongoing gifts of food, drink and luxury items to Inamun in the afterlife. The text also ensures that the names of her parents would be honoured, and tells us that her father was Ankhefenamun, who served as the “Wardrobe Master of Min” and her mother was Payestjauemdunun. Ankhefenamun’s job title tells us he worked within a cult temple or shrine dedicated to the ancient fertility god Min, and that his role may have been to oversee the clothing used to ritually dress the cult statue. Unfortunately, nothing more is known about the three people named on the stela and no other objects attributed to them have been found. Provenance The stela was gifted to the Bristol Institution (the forerunner of the Museum and Art Gallery) by Miss Goldney in 1885, along with several other objects. There was no information recorded about where it was found or how it was acquired, so the dating of the piece to Dynasty 25 was done based on style by Professor John Barns of Oxford University. The attribution of it to Abydos is based purely on it being dedicated to Osiris, whose cult centre was based there, and its general similarity to other pieces from the same site. Votive stele were often placed at Abydos, even if the person was buried elsewhere. Inamun’s father’s title as the ‘Wardrobe Master of Min’ could instead suggest an alternative affiliation with Akhmim, the principal cult centre of Min. Excavations began at Akhmim in 1884 and many items ‘strayed’ into private hands, which would fit in with the date of acquisition by the museum. Translation The following translation was created by Professor Aidan Dodson, Honorary Professor of Egyptology at the University of Bristol: Speech of Osiris, Chief of Justice, lord of Abydos, that he may give food offerings to the ka. A royal gift to Osiris that he may give unguent, alabaster, clothing, bread and beer, oxen and fowl for the Osiris Inamennayesneb, the daughter of the beloved of the god, the Wardrobe Master of Min, Ankhefenamun; her mother Payestjauemdunun. Columns 1-3 are read from right to left, starting with the top of column 3: 1. Speech of Osiris, Chief of Justice, 2. Lord of Abydos, 3. that he may give food offerings to the ka. Columns 4-9 are read from left to right, starting with the top of column 4: 4. A royal gift to Osiris that he may give 5. unguent, alabaster, clothing, bread and beer, oxen and fowl 6. for the Osiris Inamennayesneb, 7. the daughter of the beloved of the god, the Wardrobe Master of Min, 8. Ankhefenamun; her mother 9. Payestjauemdunun. Other examples Below is a selection of stele dating from Dynasty 25 which have similar design elements to the Stela of Inaemun: Acknowledgements With thanks to Lisa Graves from Bristol Museum and Art Gallery and Professor Aidan Dodson from the Department of Anthropology & Archaeology at the University of Bristol for supplying additional information on the stela for this article. The Myth of Nut, Geb, and the Creation of the World Reproduction Details Object Type: Painted papyrus Date: c. 1069-945 BC (based on style) Period: Dynasty 21, Third Intermediate Period Findspot: Thebes Materials: Papyrus Size: Height 19.3cm Current location: Room 643, Musée du Louvre, Paris Inventory number: E17401 F02 (Frame 2) Print Reference: DP07C This reproduction of a mythological scene comes from a papyrus that belonged to Nespakashuty (or Nespakachouty), the accountant-scribe of the Theban granaries of Amun in Dynasty 21, c. 1069-945 BC. The vignette illustrates the myth of the separation of heaven and earth and the creation of the world. We see the sky goddess Nut, represented as a naked woman, whose body arches above that of her brother and husband, the Earth god Geb, lying on the ground. The solar boat, with its rudder, sails across the space between the two deities. A god is seated in the boat; on his head is the solar disk with a Uraeus cobra and a representation of the goddess Ma’at holding the ankh (the sign of life). The separation of heaven and earth created a space in which the solar boat could sail, and this episode marks the beginning of the solar cycle and the first day of the world. Mythological Papyrus The papyrus containing these types of vignettes is called a "mythological papyrus", a particular kind of funerary book circulated exclusively among the personnel of the temple of Amun at Thebes in the Dynasty 21 (1069-945 BC). These books evoke the deceased's journey through the Underworld to the afterlife, which is compared to the solar cycle. They contain little text in comparison with other funerary works, using vignettes and rich illustrations instead to create a storyboard effect. The Triad of Memphis: A Glimpse of Ramesses III's Devotion to Ptah, Sekhmet, and Nefertem Reproduction Details Object Type: Papyrus Material: Papyrus Date: c. 1150 BC Period: Dynasty 20, Reign of Ramesses III Findspot: Thebes, Egypt Dimensions: H: 42.80 cm, L: 54.50 cm Current Location: British Museum, London Inventory Number: EA9999,43 Reproduction Number: DP79 Description The Great Harris Papyrus is a memorial document produced following the death of Rameses III (c. 1184-1153 BC) by his son Ramesses IV. It contains a comprehensive retrospective overview of Rameses III’s reign and includes three vignettes illustrating the king’s donations to the gods and temples of Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis. In this vignette, Ramesses III stands before the holy family of the ancient city of Memphis: Ptah, the patron of craftsmen, his consort the lion-headed goddess Sekhmet, and their child, Nefertum, god of the lotus. The king is shown making offerings to the resident deities, with hieratic text identifying each of the figures and recording his address to Ptah and the Memphite Triad. Ramesses III Ramesses is depicted wearing a sheer overskirt, linen sash, and a pleated kilt whose triangular apron has a point ending in a fox's head. He is in full regalia, wearing the royal nemes wig with a uraeus cobra on his brow, carrying the crook and flail, and sporting a stylised bull's tail. His jewellery includes a broad collar, armlets, and bracelets, and his ear is pierced for an earring. Ramesses is identified by his two chief names given in cartouches above him: Lord of the Two Lands, Usermaatre Meryamun (Strong is the Maat of Re, beloved of Amun) Lord of Appearances Ramessu heqa Iunu (Ramesses, ruler of Heliopolis) He is making a gesture indicating he is speaking to the gods before him, and the two columns of hieratic record his words: I tell the prayers, praises, adorations, laudations, mighty deeds, and benefactions, which I did for you in your presence, O Resi-inebef (South-of-His-Wall) Ptah Ramesses is facing Ptah, the chief deity of Memphis, who stands on a dais in the shape of the symbol Maat, the divine personification of truth, harmony and justice. Ptah is one of the oldest Egyptian gods, first mentioned in Dynasty 1 and was considered to be a creator god particularly associated with craftsmen and funerary traditions. Ptah is shown with distinctive artistic attributes rarely seen in other gods that help identify him. He has a straight beard instead of a curved one, a tight-fitting skullcap instead of a headdress, and a counterpoise necklace with a rounded top and flared bottom. He is often depicted with elements that linked him to the god Osiris, such as the white shroud and djed-ankh symbols attached to his was-sceptre. The hieroglyphs provide his two chief names: Ptah the great, “South-of-His-Wall” Lord of “Life-of-the-Two-Lands” Sekhmet Standing behind Ptah is his consort, the lion-headed goddess Sekhmet, who is labelled in the hieratic text above her head as: Sekhmet the great, beloved of Ptah. As the daughter of the sun god Ra, she acted as his vengeful eye, destroyed his enemies, and brought pestilence and plague. Her solar connection is clear from the sun disk that sits atop her long wig and the uraeus cobra that encircles the headdress, which was also the emblem on the crown of the rulers of Lower Egypt. In one hand she holds an ankh, the symbol for life, and in the other a papyrus sceptre, another symbol representing Lower Egypt. Sekhmet wears a tight-fitting, red dress with a lozenge pattern which is thought to represent a bead-net dress. The beads are cylinders of blue or green faience, which were either sewn onto a linen dress or worked into a separate net worn over the linen. In art, bead-net dresses are fairly common in the Old and Middle Kingdoms but decline in number during the New Kingdom. Nefertem The third member of the divine family is the holy child of the triad, who is introduced as: Nefertem, protector of the Two Lands In Egyptian mythology, Nefertem was originally a lotus flower that had arisen from the primordial waters at the creation of the world. He represented the creation of day with sunlight and the pleasant smell of the Egyptian blue lotus flower, associating him with perfumes aromatics. Nefertem is usually depicted as a beautiful young man with a headdress in the shape of a lotus flower. Here his headdress is complemented by two plumes to create an atef-style crown. In one hand he holds an ankh, the symbol for life, and in the other a was-sceptre, representing power and dominion. Translation The text in this scene is hieratic, a handwritten adaptation of hieroglyphs for the medium of ink and brush on papyrus. Above each of the deities from left to right are their names: Nefertem, protector of the Two Lands. Sekhmet the great, beloved of Ptah. Ptah the great, “South-of-His-Wall”, lord of “Life-of-the-Two-Lands”. The two chief names of Ramesses III are given in cartouches: Lord of the Two Lands, Usermaatre Meryamun (Strong is the Maat of Re, beloved of Amun). Lord of Appearances Ramessu heqa Iunu (Ramesses, ruler of Heliopolis). Ramesses is shown presenting an address to Ptah and the holy family: “I tell the prayers, praises, adorations, laudations, mighty deeds, and benefactions, which I did for you in your presence, O Resi-inebef (South-of-His-Wall)”. Previous 1 2 3 4 5 Next