Reproduction Details Object Type : Wall painting Materials : Limestone, plaster, pigment Date : c. 1550–1525 BC Period : 17th-18th Dynasty, Second Intermediate Period-New Kingdom Findspot : Tomb of Ahmose, el-Kab Print Reference : DP122 - Ahmose, Son of Ebana About the Artwork My reproduction depicts a wall painting from the tomb of Ahmose, son of Ebana, at Elkab (c. 1550–1525 BC, early Dynasty 18). Ahmose was a distinguished naval officer who served under Seqenenre Tao, Kamose, and Ahmose I, and whose career spanned the wars that expelled the Hyksos and secured Egypt’s reunification. The hieroglyphic biography of Ahmose, son of Ebana, in his rock tomb at ancient Necheb (el-Kab) On the walls of his modest cliff-cut tomb, he recorded one of the most detailed first-person military autobiographies known from ancient Egypt. The text not only recounts his bravery in battle and the rewards he received but also provides invaluable historical evidence for Egypt’s military and political transformation at the dawn of the New Kingdom. In this scene, Ahmose is shown in large scale, the traditional marker of his status and authority. At his feet, rendered in smaller scale, is his grandson Pahery, a scribe of Amun, who was responsible for overseeing the decoration of his grandfather’s tomb (dedicated in the blue hieroglyphics). The (gold) hieroglyphic columns visible here contain the opening lines of Ahmose’s autobiography, which situate him firmly within the service of the Theban kings and the divine order they embodied. Translation Pahery's Dedication (Blue Hieroglyphics) (1) It is the son of his daughter who directed the work (2) in this tomb, being the one who causes to live the name of the father of his mother (3) scribe of forms of Amun, Pahery, justified. Ahmose's Autobiography (Gold Hieroglyphics) (1) Naval commander Ahmose, son of Ebana, justified, (2) says: "I speak to you, all people. I will let you know the favours that were granted to me. I have been rewarded with gold seven times..." The autobiography continues over 66 columns in which Ahmose describes his military career, highlighting significant battles and the honours he received. Read the full translation here . Further Reading Davies, W. V. (2009). The tomb of Ahmose Son-of-Ibana at Elkab. Documenting the family and other observations . Elkab and Beyond. Studies in Honour of Luc Limme, W. Claes, H. De Meulenaere, and S. Hendrickx (Eds). Sethe, K. (1927). Urkunden der 18. Dynastie . Volume I. Hinrichs, Leipzig.

Introduction to the Coffin of Nespawershefyt The coffin of Nespawershefyt is a remarkable artifact from ancient Egypt. This piece dates back to around 1000 BC and belongs to Dynasty 21 during the Third Intermediate Period. It provides a fascinating glimpse into the beliefs and practices surrounding death and the afterlife in ancient Egyptian culture. Reproduction Details Object : Coffin Materials : Wood, Plaster Date : c. 1000 BC Period : Dynasty 21, Third Intermediate Period Findspot : Theban Necropolis Current Location : Fitzwilliam Museum Object Number : E.1.1822 Art Ref : DP003 The coffin features a scene painted on its footboard. It depicts Nephthys and the four Sons of Horus. These figures served as powerful protectors of the deceased. They are surrounded by symbols that relate to divine protection. The Sons of Horus guarded vital organs, while Nephthys, a funerary goddess, watched over the dead. She helped guide them safely through the afterlife. The Coffin Set of Nespawershefyt On display in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge , this beautifully decorated coffin set dates to around 1000 BC. It comprises a mummy board, an inner coffin, and an outer coffin, complete with lids and boxes. This set belonged to a high-ranking official from Karnak named Nespawershefyt. His name translates to ‘He who belongs to the Great One of the Ram’s Head’ or Nesamun, meaning ‘He who belongs to Amun.’ Nespawershefyt held over 40 titles. His final roles included ‘supervisor of craftsmen’s workshops’ and ‘supervisor of scribes in the house of Amun’. With access to the finest artisans of his time, it is no surprise that his coffin is of exceptional quality. It is richly decorated with religious scenes and spells from the Book of the Dead. These elements invoke the protection of the gods and provide guidance for his journey to the afterlife. The coffin set was one of the first Egyptian objects acquired by the Fitzwilliam Museum. It was donated in 1822 by Barnard Hanbury and George Waddington. These former Trinity College students obtained the coffins during their travels. However, little is known about their time in Egypt beyond a documented journey from Wadi Halfa to Meroe. This situation highlights how the colonial antiquities trade removed artefacts from their original contexts. It leaves gaps in our understanding of their histories, use, and meaning. Nephthys and the Four Sons of Horus Across the top of the scene stretches a blue, arched form of the hieroglyph pt , representing the sky. This is a common motif that evokes the cosmic order ( maat ) and the protective dome of heaven. Beneath it sits the funerary goddess Nephthys. She is associated with mourning, protection, and the afterlife. Nephthys often appears in tombs and coffins as a guardian of the dead. She works in tandem with her sister Isis to watch over the body and soul. To the ancient Egyptians, her name was nbt-ḥwt, meaning “Mistress of the House.” She wears this title as a crown. The hieroglyphic sign for a basket sits atop a stylised ground plan of a house. Such visual punning was common in ancient Egyptian art. Deities could be identified by the hieroglyphs they wore, blending language and image. Nephthys was revered not only for her role in mourning Osiris but also as a liminal figure. She stands between life and death, embodying both the sorrow of loss and the promise of rebirth and regeneration. Nephthys is shown kneeling upon the hieroglyph nb , which represents gold. Her arms are raised in a posture of protection. Above her, a winged serpent wearing an ankh around its neck emerges from the Eye of Horus symbol. These figures have raised arms honouring the hieroglyph of Nephthys’s name on her head. This motif is rich in symbols of protection, divinity, and eternal life. Flanking the goddess are the Four Sons of Horus. These deities guarded the canopic jars used to preserve the internal organs during mummification. Each god is depicted in mummiform, symbolising their bond with the preserved body of the deceased. Imseti, protector of the liver, has a human head and is often linked to Isis. Duamutef, guardian of the stomach, has a jackal’s head and is protected by Neith. Qebehsenuef, who watches over the intestines, bears a hawk’s head and is associated with Selqet. Finally, Hapi, defender of the lungs, is shown with a baboon’s head, under the protection of Nephthys herself. The Importance of the Coffin in Ancient Egyptian Culture The coffin served multiple purposes in ancient Egyptian society. It was not just a container for the deceased but also a vital element in the journey to the afterlife. The design and decoration of the coffin were crucial. They reflected the status of the individual and their beliefs about life after death. Symbolism in Coffin Decoration The decorations on coffins were rich in symbolism. They often included scenes from the Book of the Dead, which provided guidance for the deceased. These scenes depicted various gods and goddesses, ensuring protection and assistance in the afterlife. The use of hieroglyphs also played a significant role. They conveyed messages and prayers to the gods, reinforcing the connection between the living and the divine. The Role of Artisans Artisans were highly skilled individuals in ancient Egypt. They were responsible for creating these intricate coffins. Their work was not only a craft but also a spiritual practice. Each piece was made with care and reverence, ensuring it met the spiritual needs of the deceased. The artisans often worked under the supervision of priests, who ensured that the designs adhered to religious standards. Conclusion The coffin of Nespawershefyt is more than just an ancient artifact. It is a window into the beliefs and practices of a civilization that placed great importance on the afterlife. Through its intricate designs and rich symbolism, we gain insight into the spiritual world of ancient Egypt. This coffin set serves as a reminder of the enduring human quest for understanding life, death, and what lies beyond. Further Information Nespawershefyt's coffin set Complete Translations and Description Mummy board Decoration Summary Inner Coffin Box Decoration Summary Inner Coffin Lid Decoration Summary Outer Coffin Box Decoration Summary Outer Coffin Lid Decoration Summary

My reproduction of a wall relief from the Tomb of Neferiretnes, later usurped by Raemkai, dates back to the 5th Dynasty (c. 2446–2389 BC). It forms part of a larger composition surrounding the tomb’s False Door. This relief depicts a group of men catching birds in the Nile marshes using a clap-net. Their catch is then presented as an offering to the tomb owner, intended to provide eternal sustenance in the afterlife. Reproduction Details Type : Wall relief Material : Limestone, paint Date : c. 2446–2389 BC Period : Dynasty 5, Old Kingdom Findspot : Tomb of Neferiretnes/Raemkai, Saqqara Current Location : Metropolitan Museum of Art Object Number : 08.201.1d Art Ref : DP121 "Catching Birds With a Clap-Net" The Tomb of Neferiretnes / Raemkai This tomb was originally built for the judge and scribe inspector Neferiretnes during the later Old Kingdom under King Niuserre. It was later briefly usurped by a royal prince named Raemkai. While Raemkai attempted to overwrite Neferiretnes' name on the tomb’s False Door, the changes were crudely done and left incomplete. This suggests a short-lived and possibly unauthorized takeover. The tomb is part of a cluster of mastabas north of the Djoser complex at Saqqara. It was excavated by Auguste Mariette in the 1850s-60s and again by James Quibell in the 1900s. Its exceptionally fine Old Kingdom reliefs depict daily life and offerings, making it a target for collectors. It was dismantled and sold to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1908. Despite early sketches made by Egyptologists, the tomb’s precise original location was never recorded. The tomb is now on display in Gallery 102 at The Met Fifth Avenue in New York. The False Door False Door and West Wall. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 08.201.1e and 08.201.1d The tomb chapel was oriented on a north–south axis, with the False Door set into the west wall. This alignment symbolically corresponds to the direction of the afterlife in ancient Egyptian belief. This architectural feature served as a spiritual portal through which the tomb owner's ka (vital spirit) could receive offerings. The decoration surrounding the False Door consists of a sequence of carefully arranged registers. These depict idealised scenes of provisioning and ritual, consistent with Old Kingdom funerary traditions: The tomb owner is shown on a larger scale than everyone else and seated on a lion-legged chair, receiving offerings. This image emphasises his elite status and participation in the ongoing cycle of funerary rites. Attendants approach carrying goods and offering tables piled with bread, fruit, meat, and drink. These processions represent the eternal delivery of sustenance to the deceased. Groups of men are butchering cows and preparing joints of meat for the offering platters of the attendants. These scenes reflect the practical aspects of provisioning the tomb. A team of men are catching birds in the Nile marshes, again to provide meat for the offerings, in a scene rich in symbolic references to regeneration and natural abundance. Fowling with Clap-Net My reproduction focuses on the bottom register of the west wall. It shows a dynamic scene of bird-catching using a traditional clap-net. The activity is controlled by the signalman, who is stationed close to where the trap has been set. He alerts the team when it is time to pull. Since shouting would disturb the birds, the signalman raises a stretched piece of cloth to give the order to haul in the net. Five naked men work in unison, pulling ropes to close a large net set within a stylised marsh pool. The net is already full of herons, ducks, and geese trapped among floating lotus blossoms and buds. Their nudity, an uncommon feature in tomb reliefs, likely underscores the physical labour involved and their immersion in the watery environment. It may also reflect an idealised portrayal of rural, productive life. The setting is highly stylised. Vertical strokes represent a dense barrier of papyrus and reeds, enclosing the scene in a visual framework reminiscent of a cartouche. While abstract in form, this depiction refers to the Nile marshlands. This area is a liminal space in ancient Egyptian cosmology associated with fertility, creation, and rebirth. For the deceased, such scenes were not merely decorative but functioned as magical representations, ensuring ongoing provision in the afterlife. A sixth figure at the far left carries several birds by the wings and walks toward the False Door. This links the marshland activity directly to the offering rituals of the tomb. His inclusion bridges the practical with the sacred, transforming the act of fowling into a ritualised act of eternal offering. The Importance of Bird Catching in Ancient Egypt Bird catching played a significant role in ancient Egyptian culture. It was not only a source of food but also a symbol of abundance and fertility. The act of catching birds was often depicted in tomb art, reflecting its importance in daily life and religious practices. Symbolism of Birds Birds held deep symbolic meanings in ancient Egypt. They were often associated with the soul and the afterlife. The presence of birds in tomb reliefs served to ensure the deceased's sustenance in the afterlife. This connection between the living and the dead was crucial in ancient Egyptian belief systems. Techniques Used in Bird Catching The methods used for bird catching varied. The clap-net technique depicted in the relief is one of the most traditional. It required skill and teamwork, showcasing the community aspect of this activity. Other methods included traps and nets, which were strategically placed in areas where birds were known to gather. The Role of the Nile in Bird Catching The Nile River was vital for bird catching. Its marshlands provided a rich habitat for various bird species. The annual flooding of the Nile created ideal conditions for birds to thrive. This abundance was essential for the sustenance of both the living and the deceased. Further Information Baud, Michel 1997. "Aux pieds de Djoser: Les mastabas entre fossé et enceinte de la partie nord du complex funéraire." In Études sur l'Ancien Empire et la nécropole de Saqqâra dédiées à Jean-Philippe Lauer, pp. 69-87. Fischer, Henry G. 1995. "The Protodynastic Period and Old Kingdom in the Metropolitan Museum of Art." In Kunst des Alten Reiches: Symposium im Deutschen Archäologischen Institut Kairo am 29. und 30. Oktober 1991, p. 81, n. 1. Hayes, William C. 1946. "Egyptian Tomb Reliefs of the Old Kingdom." In The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 7 (March), pp. 174–75. Lythgoe, Albert M. 1908. "Recent Egyptian Acquisitions." In The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 12 (December), p. 221. Mariette, Auguste 1889. "Les Mastabas de l'Ancien Empire: Fragment [de son] Dernier Ouvrage". Paris: F. Vieweg, pp. 178–81, no. D3. Porter, Bertha and Rosalind L.B. Moss 1978. "Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintings: Memphis.Saqqara to Dahshur, vol. 3, part 2.1." Oxford, pp. 487-488 (sketch plan). Quibell, James E. 1909. "Excavations at Saqqara 1907-1908, 3". Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale du Caire, p. 24, no. 903. Smith, W. Stevenson 1946. "History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting in the Old Kingdom." Boston and Oxford, pp. 194, 195, 201, 241, 247, 285.

Object Type : Wall painting Materials : Limestone, plaster, pigment Date : c. 1630 - 1540 BC Period : 17th Dynasty, Second Intermediate Period Findspot : Tomb of the Dancers, Dra Abu el-Naga, Thebes Dimensions : 137.2 x 145 cm in frame Current Location : Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford Accession Number : AN1958.145 Print Reference : DP119 – Dance For Hathor   The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford holds a striking fragment of wall painting from the so-called Tomb of the Dancers, discovered at Dra Abu el‑Naga, part of the Theban necropolis in Egypt. Dating to Dynasty 17, during the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1630–1550 BC), the scene depicts a group of women mid-dance, arms raised, fingers snapping in rhythm. It likely formed part of a festival or ceremonial performance honouring Hathor, the goddess of music, dance, joy, and fertility. Fragment of wall painting from the Tomb of the Dancers © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford In ancient Egyptian culture, dance was far more than entertainment. It held deep ritual, social, and symbolic meaning. Performances by professional ensembles, made up of singers ( ḥsı͗t ), musicians ( ḥnı͗t or ḥnwt ), and dancers ( ḥbw ), were an essential part of elite banquets, temple rituals, and funerary ceremonies. Wealthy households, including royal harems, often trained women in the musical arts, while male musicians commonly played instruments such as harps, lyres, and lutes during performances. The 17th Dynasty was a period of political division but artistic continuity. Centred at Thebes, it bridged the more formal traditions of the Middle Kingdom with the expressive, flourishing styles of the New Kingdom that followed. Artistic output in this era, especially in tomb decoration, maintained many traditional motifs while subtly shifting in execution. Scenes could appear more provincial or simplified, but they retained a sense of ritual importance, especially in depictions of music and dance. The dancers in this tomb fragment are shown in fluid, energetic poses, captured mid-motion with a sense of rhythm rarely seen in earlier periods. These depictions weren’t merely decorative: they reflected the Egyptians’ belief in dance as a sacred act, capable of invoking divine favour and aiding the soul’s journey into the afterlife. Performers, often women, frequently acted as priestesses of Hathor, their movements part of the ceremonial language of rebirth and protection.

Read anything about Ancient Egypt and you’ll soon come across an obvious etymological curiosity; most places are known by their Greek, Roman, Arabic or even English names, rather than their ancient Egyptian names. This reflects the enormous breadth of time many of these settlements have been occupied, but it doesn’t help if you’re reading a piece of ancient Egyptian literature. Where’s this Iunu they keep talking about? It doesn’t sound much like Heliopolis, does it? I wanted to find out what the ancient Egyptians called their towns and cities and create my own map as a reference guide. The ancient Egyptian names are given first, with the most commonly used modern name given in brackets. Map of Ancient Egyptian Town Names So, what did they call Egypt? During the Old Kingdom, Egypt was referred to as Kemet , which means “the Black land” and they called themselves Remtju ni Kemet , meaning the "People of the Black Land". The term refers to the rich soil found in the Nile Valley and Delta which demarcated the inhabitable land. This was contrasted with Deshret , or the "Red Land", which described the deserts of Egypt. Later, Egyptians referred to their country as Hwt-ka-Ptah , which means "House of the Ka of Ptah", referring to one of Egypt's earliest gods, Ptah. This was also the name of the administrative centre and capital of Egypt, Menefer (Memphis). The Egyptians themselves divided Egypt into Ta Shemau , meaning "the Land of Reeds” (Upper Egypt) and Ta Mehu , meaning "the Land of Papyrus” (Lower Egypt). The division between the two was retained after the unification of the kingdom in the Predynastic period, and the pharaoh was often known as the “King of Upper and Lower Egypt”. This concept of duality is a constantly recurring feature of the Egyptian civilisation and was echoed in the pairing of different gods and goddesses to represent Upper and Lower Egypt, notably the Two Ladies, Nekhbet and Wadjet. Even the symbols of authority reinforced the idea; Lower Egypt was represented by the symbol of a red crown, also called Deshret, whilst Upper Egypt was with a white crown, known as Hedjet or “White one”. When combined, they formed the Sekhemti or Pschent, the double crown of Egypt. My reproduction of a relief from the Temple of Seti I, dating to c. 1290–1279 BC. The king sits between the Two Ladies, the vulture goddess Nekhbet of Upper Egypt, and the cobra goddess Wadjet, her counterpart in Lower Egypt, surrounded by symbols relating to the concept of unity. The ritual unification of the Two Lands is symbolised by the sema-tawi symbol at the bottom; a knotted papyrus plant representing Upper Egypt intertwined with a reed plant representing Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt’s Major Sites Lower Egypt was known as Ta Mehu , meaning “the Land of the Papyrus”. The area extends from Egypt’s coast on the Mediterranean Sea to the southern suburbs of modern-day Cairo, encompassing the fertile Nile Delta. Its capital was at Menefer (Memphis), whose patron goddess was the cobra goddess Wadjet. As an area, it was less geographically and culturally isolated from the surrounding ancient world than Upper Egypt was to the south. Busiri (Abusir) Located just north of Saqqara, Busiri served as one of the main elite cemeteries for the capital city of Menefer (Memphis) during the Dynasty 5 of the Old Kingdom. The necropolis contained 14 pyramids as well as solar temples and was thought to have been chosen as a site because nearby Giza and Saqqara had become full. Dahshur A royal necropolis located in the desert on the west bank of the Nile, close to the capital Menefer (Memphis). It contains five of the original 11 pyramids, which chart the transition from step-sided pyramids to smooth-sided pyramids, including the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid of King Sneferu, and the Black Pyramid of King Amenemhat III. Djanet (Tanis) A city on the now-silted Tanitic branch of the Nile Delta, which developed in Dynasty 19. Tanis became the seat of power of the pharaohs of Dynasty 21-22 after Pi-Ramesses' abandonment. The major site was the Great Temple of Amun-Ra, with minor temples dedicated to Mut and Khonsu who, along with Amun-Ra, formed the Theban Triad. Djedu (Busiris) An ancient town and nome in the Delta on the western bank of the Damietta Branch of the Nile near Zau (Sais). It was regarded as one of the birthplaces of Osiris and the festival of Isis held there was one of the most popular and well-attended in the calendar. Hut-waret (Avaris) Known as the “House of the Region”, Hut-waret was a major administrative capital of the Hyksos and other traders and the capital of Egypt. The Hyksos occupied it from Dynasty 13 to the Second Intermediate Period until its capture by King Ahmose I in Dynasty 18. Iunu (Heliopolis) One of Egypt’s oldest cities, Iunu, meaning "The Pillars", was a major religious centre occupied since the Predynastic Period. It was the principal cult centre of Ra and Atum, giving it its Greek name ‘City of the Sun’. The Temple of Ra was a depository for royal records, and Herodotus states that the priests of Heliopolis were the best informed in matters of history of all the Egyptians. Khem (Letopolis) The city was a centre of worship of the deity Khenty-khem, a form of the god Horus. The site and its deity are mentioned from as far back as the Old Kingdom, but the only known monuments remaining date to the reigns of pharaohs from the Late Period. Menefer (Memphis) Menefer, meaning "enduring and beautiful", was the capital of ancient Egypt during the Old Kingdom and occupied a strategic position at the mouth of the Nile Delta between upper and lower Egypt. It thrived as a regional centre for commerce, trade, and religion and was the centre for the worship of Ptah, the god of creation and artworks, along with the Memphis triad, consisting Ptah, his consort Sekhmet, and their son Nefertem. Per-Bast (Bubastis) Its name means "House of Bast" and it was notable as a centre of worship for the feline goddess Bastet, and the principal depository in Egypt of mummies of cats. It became a royal residence after Shoshenq I, the first ruler and founder of Dynasty 22, became pharaoh and reached its height during the Dynasty 23. Per-Wadjet (Buto) Originally two cities of Pe and Dep, Per-Wadjet or “House of Wadjet”, was known for its temple dedicated to Wadjet, the patron deity of Lower Egypt, often represented as a cobra. Her oracle was in her nearby temple, and an annual festival was held there in the goddess's honour. Piemro (Naucratis) It was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Greek colony in Egypt and there was a symbiotic interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture through its port and trade links. The exact date of its foundation is unknown but accounts from Strabo and Athenaeus suggest the reign of Psammetichus I. Khito (Rosetta) Named from the hieratic meaning “the populace”, Khito was a minor settlement that was inhabited since the early dynasty period and located at the mouth of the Polpetin branch of the Nile. Rhacotis (Alexandria) Located west of the now-silted Canopic branch of the Nile, Rhacotis meaning “construction site” was a port within the Nile Delta that was reliably accessible to large ships and supplied enough water to support a city via canals. It became the Egyptian quarter of Alexandria as the city grew following the arrival of Alexander the Great. Saqqara The necropolis for the ancient Egyptian capital, Menefer (Memphis), features the pyramids of seventeen Egyptian kings from Dynasty 1 as well as several mastaba tombs and funerary monuments of high officials. It includes the oldest complete stone building complex known in history, the Step Pyramid of Djoser. Sena (Pelusium) An important city in the eastern extremes of the Nile Delta, Sena stood as a border fortress, a place of great strength, on the frontier, protecting Egypt from incursions from Syria and the sea. It was directly exposed to attack by any invaders and was often besieged, and the decisive battle which transferred the throne of the Pharaohs to Cambyses II, king of the Persians, took place here. Tamiat (Damietta) A coastal port whose name means “the ability”, possibly because it could combine the salt water of the Mediterranean Sea and the freshwater of the Nile in one place. Originally closer to the sea than it is at present, the town declined with the development of Alexandria. Tipersis (Giza) Close to the capital of Menefer, the Giza Plateau contains a huge complex of royal mortuary and sacred structures, including the Great Sphinx, the Great Pyramid of Giza, and several other large pyramids and temples. It was used from the Pre-dynastic until the Late period, though the major sites were constructed during Dynasty 4. Wadi Natrun A valley located below sea level and the Nile containing several alkaline lakes, natron-rich salt deposits, salt marshes and freshwater marshes. The alkali lakes of the Natron Valley provided the Egyptians with the sodium bicarbonate used in mummification and faience making. The Egyptians fought the Libyans for control of the area, overcoming them and annexing the eastern side of the desert. Zau (Sais) A town in the Western Nile Delta on the Canopic branch of the Nile, it became the seat of power during Dynasty 24 and the Saite Dynasty 26 during the Late Period. The city's patron goddess was Neith, whose cult is attested as early as Dynasty 1 and it was said to contain the grave of Osiris. Sinai & Beyond The Sinai Peninsula is situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south and acts as a land bridge between Asia and Africa. From the time of the First Dynasty or before, the Egyptians mined turquoise in Sinai on a seasonal basis, giving the area its name Ta Mefkat , meaning “the Land of Turquoise”. A north-south reed-lined waterway is shown on ancient maps called Ta Denit , “the Dividing Waters”. Due to its proximity to the Levant, it has historically been the centre of conflict between Egypt and various states of Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Azzati (Gaza) This city served as Egypt's administrative capital in Canaan and was the residence of the Egyptian governor of the region. A caravan point of strategic importance from the earliest times, it was constantly involved in the wars between Egypt and Syria and the Mesopotamian powers. Gaza was in Egyptian hands for 350 years, until it was settled by the Philistines. Gebel Athak (Timna) The largest and oldest copper mining site in modern-day Yemen, mining activity by the Egyptians and Midianites at Timna reached its peak during the 19th and 20th Dynasties. Ramses II, during the campaign against the country of Edom, is said to have pacified the region and organised the lasting presence of Egyptians. Khetiu Mefkat (Wadi Maghareh) Site containing pharaonic monuments, turquoise and copper mines used extensively throughout Egypt’s history. They called it Khetiu Mefkat , meaning "the Terraces of Turquoise". Robihwa (Rafah) The city has for significant periods been a part of the Egyptian Empire and formed a border between Egypt and the Lavant. It was also a major location on the battle route towards Egyptian settlements in Anatolia and Levant. Rusalim (Jerusalem) Jerusalem became a vassal to Egypt after the New Kingdom under Ahmose I and Thutmose I had reunited Egypt and expanded into the Levant. They called the Canaanite city Rusalim, probably meaning "City of Shalem" after a Canaanite god of dusk. The Battle of Djahy between Ramesses III and the Sea Peoples marked the beginning of the decline in power of the Egyptians in the region. Serabit el-Khadim A locality where turquoise was mined extensively featuring mining camps and a long-lived Temple of Hathor, the Egyptian goddess who was favoured as a protector in desert regions and known as the “Lady of Turquoise”. Tjaru (El Qantara) A frontier town in the inhospitable desert region, the fortress at Tjaru was the main fortress protecting the Way of Horus and was said to be a place of banishment for criminals. The Way of Horus Egypt’s eastern frontier, this route connected Egypt with Canaan starting at Tjaru and ending at Rafah. At least 11 strategically placed fortresses lined the route, guarding a northern access point to Egypt, with temples dedicated to Horus.

Reproduction Details Object Type : Tomb Painting Date : c. 1325 BC Period : Dynasty 18 Findspot : North Wall, Burial Chamber, Tomb of Tutankhamun (KV 62) Print Reference : DP72A Tutankhamun’s Tomb The grandeur and scope of Tutankhamun’s treasures contrast sharply with the simplicity of the small tomb they were found within. The sudden death of the king at a young age meant that the craftsmen only had 70 days to complete his tomb, the typical length of time necessary for embalming the body. Most of the tomb was left unfinished, with bare rock-cut walls and only one of the four chambers hastily painted to provide the king with a suitable resting place. The swiftness of the work meant that technical inconsistencies in the decoration are commonplace and there is a suggestion that the tomb had previously belonged to someone else and was hastily converted into Tutankhamun’s. This scene on the north wall overlooked the nested golden shrines and sarcophagi containing the king’s body, and shows Tutankhamun’s journey into the afterlife in three acts. It should be read from right to left (or east to west, mimicking the belief that the soul journeyed from the land of the living in the east into the afterlife in the west upon burial). Translation Scene 1: Ay and Tutankhamun In the first (right) scene, Tutankhamun is shown as a mummy, whilst his successor, King Ay, performs the Opening of the Mouth ceremony in the garb of a priest. In royal funerals, this role was typically performed by the eldest son and heir of the deceased on their mummy when it was placed in the tomb. Dying without an heir, Ay performed this ritual for Tutankhamun, which was believed to enable the dead to be able to speak in the afterlife and give testimony in the hall of judgement before the gods. Ay is shown with a youthful face and body, despite being a decade older than the king when he died and wears the distinctive leopard skin of a priest. On his head is the blue Khopresh crown with a golden uraeus snake, a royal symbol which confirms the words of the hieroglyphs above Ay, which identify him as: "The good god, Lord of the Two Lands, Lord of Rituals, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Kheper-Kheperu-Re, the son of Re, the God’s Father Ay, endowed eternally with life and forever like Re". In the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, special ritual tools such as the adze that Ay holds were used to touch the mouth and eyes of the mummy to enable a spirit to receive food and drink, breathe, and see. Some of the other equipment is shown on a casket between the two figures, including the foreleg of an ox, ostrich feathers, a finger amulet, and five small vases containing wads of incense. Tutankhamun is shown in the form of Osiris, with an extended beard with a hooked tip and wearing a white shroud and the god’s Atef crown with ostrich plumes that indicate his status as glorified deceased. In his hands, he holds two ceremonial flails known as nekhakha which were a symbol of royal power and could only be used by a pharaoh. Around the king’s neck is a large Wesekh collar with a winged scarab amulet depicting the god Khepri in the act of rolling the solar disk in front of it as a sign of rebirth. A pectoral of a similar design was found amongst the treasures of his tomb. The hieroglyphs above the mummiform king give his names and titles: "The good god, Lord of the Two Lands, Lord of the Crowns, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Neb-kheperu-re, the son of Ra, Tutankhamun, Master of the Heliopolis of the South, endowed with life, eternally". Scene 2: Tutankhamun the Goddess Nut In the second, central scene, Tutankhamun is greeted by the Goddess Nut, who mourns the king’s passing. Here, the king is shown in the costume of the living, with a loincloth resting high on his hips and a broad wesekh collar around his neck. On his head, he has a short wig encircled with a gold band with a uraeus snake. In one hand he holds a staff and in the other, a club together with the ankh sign of life. The hieroglyphs above him once again serve to identify the king: "Lord of the Two-lands Neb-kheperu-re, endowed with life, eternally and forever." The goddess Nut is depicted in the traditional style, in a close-fitting gown with a shoulder strap and broad red linen sash, a wasekh collar and bracelets. In her hands, she holds two water hieroglyphs, which can be read as nyny meaning “welcome”. The goddess’s wig is held in place with a white ribbon of mourning and the hieroglyphics above them give the words of the goddess as she greets the king: “Nut, Mistress of the Sky, Lady of the Gods, she performs a welcome for the one whom she gave birth, she gives health and life to your nostrils, which is life eternally". Scene 3: Tutankhamun, his Ka and Osiris In the final (left) scene, Tutankhamun is shown being embraced by the god Osiris and welcomed in the afterlife, whilst the young king is supported by his Ka, or spirit form. The god of the underworld Osiris is shown in the form of a mummy, wearing a white shroud and an Atef crown with ostrich plumes and an extended beard with a hooked tip. His green skin is a reference to his role as a god of fertility and rebirth, mimicking the greenery of Egypt after the floods have nourished the lands. He can be identified by the hieroglyphs above him, which give his title as: "Osiris, Master of the West, the great god" As guardian of the underworld, Osiris welcomes Tutankhamun into his embrace, who is depicted once again in the form of a living man. Here Tutankhamun wears the striped nemes headcloth with a golden uraeus, a broad waskeh collar and a pleated kilt held in place by an elaborate belt and sash. The hieroglyphs above his head state: "The good god, Lord of the Two Lands, Lord of the Crowns, Neb-kheperu-re, endowed with life, eternally". Supporting Tutankhamun is the Ka, or soul of Tutankhamun, who takes the form of a god. The Ka was one of several forms the ancient Egyptian soul could take and represented the life force of the spiritual double of the person. The Ka was believed to leave the body upon death and take up residence in the afterlife and was sustained by offerings of food, drink and prayers from the living. Tutankhamun’s Ka is depicted wearing the traditional kilt of a god, held in place with a golden belt in the shape of a tyet knot and holding the ankh sign for life. Upon his tripartite wig sits a headdress formed from the hieroglyphic sign for Ka, which contains one of the king’s royal epithets “Strong Bull”. The hieroglyphs reemphasise his identity as: "The royal Ka of the one who is at the head of the changing room [of the royal palace]". Art Style Stylistically, the north wall’s decoration bears the hallmarks of the art of the Amarna period during the reign of the young king’s probable father Akhenaten (c. 1353–1336 BC). Amarna art is highly distinctive if you know what to look for and is most obvious in the way the human form was depicted: Large, elongated eyes, sometimes described as “naturalistic eyes” Groove at the corner of the mouth called an “oromental fold” Long necks Narrow shoulders Spindly arms Sagging bellies with a pronounced belly fold Crescent-shaped naval Heavy buttocks and thighs Short lower legs All five toes depicted on the nearest foot from the outside Wearing loose, pleated garments with floating streamers and sashes Many of these changes can be explained by the Amarna artists' love of the curved line and the use of a 20-grid square to create depictions of people instead of the 18-square grid used since the Old Kingdom. Rather than the whole body being scaled proportionally, the extra 2 squares of the grid were added to the head area and upper body, distorting these parts of the body. Studies of the paint used in the burial chamber show that the standard palette of colours was used for the decoration, including red and yellow ochres, Egyptian blue and green, charcoal black, and huntite white. Evidence for an earlier phase of decoration was also uncovered in this study , which showed that a brighter yellow and a paler green were also used on the north wall and that the yellow background which goes underneath the painted decoration on the other walls is instead applied around the figures of the north wall. This evidence, combined with the Amarna art-style influences in the decoration of the north wall, has led to a theory that this tomb was originally decorated for another member of the royal family, Queen Nefertiti. Further Reading A high-resolution photo of the wall and surface texture filters by Factum Arte The Tomb of Tutankhamun by Osiris.net Examination of the wall paintings in Tutankhamen's Tomb: Inconsistencies in original technology by Lori Wong, Stephen Rickerby, Alan Phenix, Amarilli Rava & Rasha Kamel (2012) The Decorated North Wall In The Tomb Of Tutankhamun (KV 62) (The Burial Of Nefertiti? II) By Nicholas Reeves (2019) Proportion and style in ancient Egyptian art by Gay Robins (1993)

This copy of the Book of the Dead belonged to Ani, a Theban scribe who died around 1250 BC during Dynasty 19 of the New Kingdom. As a scribe, he held an elevated position in society and could afford to have a sumptuous 24-meter-long copy of the Book of the Dead buried with him. This ‘book’, also known as ‘The Book of Going Forth By Day’ provided Ani with all the instructions and spells required to make sure he would safely reach the afterlife. Supported by his wife, Tutu, Ani enters the Hall of Truth and is greeted by the gods responsible for deciding whether his soul will be granted access to the afterlife or suffer a terrible fate. He bows to the gods surrounding the scales, who are weighing his heart to see if it will be found in balance with the feather personifying Maat , truth and justice. These gods are reporting their findings to the company of 12 gods known as the Great Ennead that are sitting in judgement on their thrones. This is a critical moment for Ani; if he fails this test his heart will be devoured by a terrifying beast and his soul would not be able to reach the afterlife. To make sure this doesn’t happen, Ani is reciting spell 30B, to ask his heart not to betray him to the gods and for it to be found in balance with Maat. This spell is destined to work, as Thoth , scribe of the God’s tells the Great Ennead that Ani has “ been found true on the great balance”. Reproduction Details Type : Painted papyrus Date : c. 1250 BC, Dynasty 19, reign of Ramesses II Findspot : Tomb of Ani, Thebes Materials : Papyrus Size : Width 42cm (including modern frame); Length 67cm (including modern frame) Current location : British Museum, London Object number : EA10470,3 Reproduction Print Reference : DP11B Ani and Tutu Ani can be found in the bottom left with his wife Tutu. He is shown as a living man with braided hair and wearing fine white linen, bracelets, and a broad collar. He is bowing to the assembled gods in the pose used by officials to pay respect to their superiors. Ani is speaking the words of Spell 30B of the Book of the Dead, also known as the Heart Scarab spell, designed to pacify his heart so it won’t speak against him: “To be spoken by the Osiris Ani. He says: O my heart which I had from my mother! O my heart which I had from my mother! O my heart of different ages! Do not stand up as a witness against me, do not be opposed to me in the tribunal, do not be hostile to me in the presence of the keeper of the balance, for you are my ka which was in my body, the protector who made my members hale. Go forth to the happy place whereto we speed, do not tell lies about me in the presence of the god; it is indeed well that you should hear!” Though he is depicted as a living man, this is only one aspect of the deceased Ani, and we see another part of his soul in the form of a bird with the head of a man. This is Ani's ba , which can travel in and out of the tomb after death, and it perches on a shrine-shaped building, ready to be released if judgment is given in Ani's favour. His copy of the Book of the Dead gives him several titles, including ‘True Scribe of the King’, ‘His Beloved Scribe Reckoning Divine Offerings of All the Gods’ and ‘Overseer of the Double Granary of the Lord of Tawer’. The role of a scribe was only available to the sons of the elite and Ani would have been trained from an early age in the art of reading and writing Egyptian hieroglyphs and hieratic scripts. He worked within grain administration, keeping accurate records, and writing reports and letters to ensure that the king’s granary stores were always full. Beside Ani is Tutu , his wife and ‘Lady of the House’. She is shown with intricately braided hair with a floral band, a fine white linen gown, bracelets and a broad collar. In her hand, she holds a sekhem or sistrum, a sacred instrument that was used in religious ceremonies and dances. Its handle features the face and horns of the goddess Hathor. This instrument gives a clue to her privileged position as ‘Chantress of Amun’, a title referring to her role as a singer and musician in the Temple of Amun in Thebes. In the morning she would sing to the statue of Amun in the temple to wake him and she would perform the same ritual at night to send him back to sleep. She would also have participated in religious festivals throughout the year, where the statue of the god would be toured for the public to see and seek favour. The Scales The focus of the scene is the balance scales in the centre surrounded by gods. In the left pan is Ani's heart , and this is being weighed against the feather in the right pan representing Maat , the divine personification of truth and rightful order. The crossbar of the balance hangs from another Maat feather peg attached to the upright support, on the top of which squats a small baboon . This is a form of the god Thoth that is associated in the afterlife with the judgment of the dead. Anubis The jackal-headed god of the dead and embalming Anubis kneels to the right of the scales. He is wearing a strapped vest with a fish-scale pattern, an archaic and unfashionable garment in the New Kingdom and used to show the great antiquity of the old god. Anubis is acting as Guardian of the Scales, and he is holding the cord of the right-hand pan and steadying the plumb bob of the balance. The writing above him cautions the onlookers to pay attention to what he is doing: “Words spoken by He who is in the Embalming Chamber: Pay attention to the decision of truthfulness and of the plummet of the balance according to its stance.” Three Personifications of Fate Three personifications of fate are found to the right of the scales to witness the weighing and reinforce the importance of this moment in Ani’s journey to the afterlife. To the left of the scales stands Shay , a male god with a curved beard that represented the idea of destiny or fortune. Above Shay is a small shrine with a block on it with a woman’s head. This is Meshkenet, a goddess personified by a birthing brick that Egyptian women stood on to give birth. She was an important household deity and was considered an aspect of fate because it was the first place a person touched the ground when born. Meshkenet is also depicted in female form in the pair of goddesses beside Shay, along with Renenutet, the divine nurse associated with the harvest and fertility. Thoth Thoth , the scribe of the gods, is depicted again in this scene standing to the right of the balance in the form of an ibis-headed man. He wears a white sash across his chest, the typical garb of a lector priest and holds a scribal palette and a reed brush, ready to note down the results of the ceremony. The hieroglyphics records Thoth’s declaration to the Great Ennead having witnessed the weighing: “Words spoken by Thoth, Judge of the truth, to the Great Ennead which is in the presence of Osiris: Hear this word of very truth. I have judged the heart of the deceased, and his soul stands as a witness for him. His deeds are righteous in the great balance, and no sin has been found in him. He did not diminish the offerings in the temples, he did not destroy what had been made, he did not go about with deceitful speech while he was on earth." Ammit On a reed mat behind Thoth sits Ammit, or ‘she who swallows the dead’, a monster ready to spring forward to consume Ani's heart if he fails to pass the test. This creature has the head of a crocodile, the forepart of a lion, and the hindquarters of a hippopotamus and wears a tricoloured nemes headdress, a wig cover used in Egyptian art to signify divinity. The Great Ennead At the top of the scene, the god Re joins 11 other deities to create a version of the Heliopolitan Ennead (missing Osiris and Seth). This great company of gods are waiting to deliver judgment on Ani and are formally seated on thrones, holding was- sceptres symbolising power and good fortune. From right to left, the Ennead contains: Re in the Midst of his Barque; Atum; Shu ; Tefnut , Mistress of Heaven; Geb; Nut , Mistress of the Sky; Isis ; Nephthys; Horus , The Great God; Hathor , Mistress of the West; Hu (Authoritative Utterance) and Sia (Perception). After hearing the reports from Thoth, the Great Ennead give a speech in one voice summarising their judgement of Ani: “Words spoken by the Great Ennead to Thoth who is in Hermopolis: This utterance of yours is true. The vindicated Osiris Ani is straightforward, he has no sin, there is no accusation against him before us, Ammit shall not be permitted to have power over him. Let there be given to him the offerings which are issued in the presence of Osiris, and may a grant of land be established in the Field of Offerings as for the Followers of Horus.” The Text Further Reading British Museum object record The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day: The Complete Papyrus of Ani Featuring Integrated Text and Full-Color Images (2015) The papyrus of Ani; a reproduction in facsimile by E. A. W. Budge in three volumes: Vol. 1 - introductory analysis , Vol. 2 - transcription and translation , Vol. 3 - facsimile reproduction

Reproduction Details Type : Painted papyrus Date : c. 1285 BC, Dynasty 19, reign of Seti I Findspot : Presumed Tomb of Hunefer, Thebes (location unknown) Materials : Papyrus Size : Width 40cm, length 87.50cm Current location : British Museum, London ( EA9901,3 ) Art Ref : DP23B The Weighing of Hunefer’s Heart In 1285 BC, a royal scribe called Hunefer put the finishing touches to what would become one of the most celebrated examples of ancient Egyptian funerary art. It was a scroll known as ‘The Book of Going Forth By Day’ which contained the instructions and spells he believed would allow him to reach the afterlife safely. Hunefer was buried with this papyrus scroll in the Theban hills, where they both remained until they were discovered 3,300 years later by archaeologists and ended up in the British Museum. At 5.5m long, this Book of the Dead contains columns of detailed instructions, hymns and spells punctuated by beautifully detailed illustrations of Hunefer and the gods. One of the most famous vignettes from the papyrus illustrates Chapter 125 and shows Hunefer navigating the halls of judgment. In the vignette, Hunefer is led into the Hall of Truth by Anubis and is greeted by the gods responsible for deciding whether his soul will enter the afterlife or suffer a terrible fate. His heart has been placed upon a set of scales, and Anubis is weighing it against a feather personifying Maat, the concept of truth, justice and cosmic balance. As the source of Hunefer’s emotions, intellect and character, his heart represents the good and bad aspects of his life, and it now stands witness for him in the trial. This is a critical moment in Hunefer’s journey; if he fails this test his heart will be devoured by the terrifying beast called Ammit which sits at the scales and his soul will not be able to reach the afterlife. To ensure this doesn’t happen, he recites the words to spell 30B, instructing his heart not to betray him during the weighing and to be found in balance with Maat. This spell is destined to work, and Thoth, scribe of the gods, proclaims to the assembled deities that Hunefer has “been found true on the great balance”. Horus leads Hunefer to a shrine in which his father Osiris sits enthroned, accompanied by the goddesses Isis and Nephthys, and is welcomed to the afterlife. The Scales Hunefer  can be found in the bottom left being led by the hand of Anubis into the Hall of Truth. He is shown as a living man with braided hair and a small square beard, wearing fine white linen, bracelets, and a broad collar. The focus of the scene is the balance scales in the centre surrounded by gods. In the left pan is Hunefer’s heart , and it is being weighed against the feather in the right pan representing Maat , the divine personification of truth and rightful order. The scales are topped with the figure of Maat in the form of a goddess with a feather on her head, so she literally and figuratively oversees the weighing. To pacify his heart so it won’t speak against him during the trial, Hunefer is speaking the words of Spell 30B . The text of the spell varies slightly across different versions of the Book of the Dead but generally emphasises the purity of the heart and the individual's righteousness in life. This spell was so important that it also appeared on stone heart-shaped amulets placed inside the mummy wrappings, giving it its alternative name of the Heart Scarab spell . Here it says: "Do not stand against me as a witness, do not oppose me the court! Do not make my name stink in front of the great god, Lord of the West!" Kneeling on a white shrine before the scales is Anubis , the jackal-headed god of the dead and embalming. He is shown wearing a strapped vest with a fish-scale pattern, an archaic and unfashionable garment in the New Kingdom which has been used to recognise the great antiquity of the old god. Anubis is performing his role of the Guardian of the Scales and is steadying the plumb bob of the scale’s balance that is looped around a peg in the shape of a Maat feather, ready to declare the result. To the right of the scales sits Ammit , or ‘She Who Swallows the Dead’, a demonic composite of ancient Egypt’s most terrifying animals, described in the hieroglyphic inscription as “ Her front is a crocodile, her rear a hippopotamus, her middle a lion ”. If Hunefer fails this test, Ammit will spring forward and devour Hunefer’s heart, leaving him incomplete and damned for eternity. Overseeing the weighing of Hunefer’s heart is Thoth , the ibis-headed scribe of the gods. He wears a white sash across his chest, the typical garb of a lector priest and holds a scribal palette and a reed brush, ready to record the result. Hunefer’s spell has clearly worked because Thoth informs the assembly of gods and goddesses witnessing the judgment: "Look, I am recording the name of the Osiris, the Royal Scribe Hunefer. His heart has come from the scales and hasn't been found faulty." The Ennead In the top register, Hunefer can be seen kneeling before an offering table with his hands raised in adoration of the company of deities seated before him. These gods are witnessing the weighing of Hunefer’s heart and passing final judgment upon hearing Thoth’s record of the ceremony. Above each is their name in cursive hieroglyphs and they are picked out in alternating shrouds of green, white, and gold. From left to right they are: Ra , the falcon-headed sun god. Atum , the creator god. Shu , the god of air and atmosphere. Tefnut , the lion-headed goddess of moisture and rain. Geb , the god of the earth. Nut , the goddess of the sky. Horus , the god associated with kingship and protection. Isis , the goddess of motherhood and fertility. Nephthys , the goddess of mourning and the night. Hu : the god of authority and divine utterance. Sia : the god of perception and wisdom. Southern Road : the goddess of the path taken by the sun during the day. Northern Road : the god of the path taken by the sun during the night. Western Road : the goddess of the path taken by the sun during sunset, and the route to the afterlife. Osiris Shrine Having successfully passed the test and proclaimed worthy by the gathered gods and goddesses, Hunefer is led by the falcon-headed god Horus to a shrine decorated with lotus columns draped, fabric flags, and topped with golden royal cobras (uraeus). Like Anubis, Horus is shown wearing the traditional clothing associated with the old gods and he carries an ankh, the life symbol, in his hand. With a gesture of the other hand, Horus presents Hunefer to his father Osiris and the goddesses Isis and Nephthys with the words: "Look, I am introducing to you the Osiris Hunefer, true of voice. He has been judged by the scales." Hunefer stands with a bent back, a pose used by officials to pay respect to their superiors. Before him is " Osiris , the greatest of Westerners", the god of death and the underworld, who sits on a golden throne. In his hands are the crook and flail, symbols of his power and authority and on his head, he wears a tall atef crown decorated with plumed feathers. Osiris is wrapped in a white shroud and is shown with green skin, not to represent death but to evoke the verdant vegetation that emerges from the fertile soil of the Nile floodplain after the annual inundation. Green represents the vitality and rejuvenation of the dead as they pass through the cycle of death and rebirth in the afterlife under Osiris's guidance. Standing behind Osiris with their hands raised in welcome are the sister goddesses of Isis  and Nephthys . They are here to protect Hunefer in his journey to the afterlife. Both had roles to play in the resurrection of Osiris after his murder at the hands of Seth and protect Hunefer. Beneath Osiris’ throne is a pool of water from which green shoots and a lotus flower  emerge. The lotus symbolises the cycle of life, death, and rebirth as the flower was seen to arise from the murky depths of the water each day, blooming anew. Its presence reinforces Osiris’ association with rebirth and regeneration. It suggests that he, like the lotus, has the power to bring forth new life from the waters of the underworld. Standing on the lotus flower are the Four Sons of Horus , a quartet of gods that assist in the preservation and protection of Hunefer’s body in the afterlife. Qebehsenuef is responsible for protecting Hunefer’s intestines, Hapi his lungs, Duamutef his stomach and Imsety his liver. They are shown in shrouds with human heads and curved beards but are more commonly seen on canopic jars with the heads of a falcon, baboon, jackal, and a masked man. Further Reading The Complete Book of The Dead of Hunefer by Richard Parkinson, 2010 British Museum object record

You always know when you’re looking at a piece of ancient Egyptian art, but have you ever stopped to consider the basic principles the artists were using to create such enduring images? Instantly recognisable, the canon of proportions and symbols which provided the framework for ancient Egyptian art was established in the pre-dynastic period and used for well over 3000 years. All forms of artistic expression, from colossal statues to papyrus scrolls, used the same principles of composition and symbolism to create an idealised version of the world and its contents. Images were believed to be eternal truths that would exist in perpetuity and had the power to transform into reality through divine intervention. There was active resistance to changing anything which might jeopardise the power of the symbols, so they remained unchanging for millennia [1] . Jump to... Fundamental Principles ‘Aspective Art’ Organisation of Space Gridlines Scale and Status Colour Hieroglyphs Examples of Symbolism References and Further Reading Fundamental Principles The remarkable stability and long-lived nature of how the ancient Egyptians depicted the world around them is the result of strict adherence to a prescribed set of fundamental principles: ‘Aspective art’ – Instead of representing things like people or animals realistically, artists prioritised their most characteristic aspects and gave them added details to ensure they could be recognised or magically function as intended. Organisation of space – Art was organised with reference to an underlying baseline, with horizontal guidelines used to order scenes. Registers of differently scaled images also maximised the use of the available canvas, so any space could be filled or added to. Scale reflected status – The scale of a thing was used to reflect its status or importance, rather than to provide the viewer with a realistic impression of height, depth or distance. Symbols represented ideas - Actions and concepts could be symbolically represented using a lexicon of commonly understood symbols, motifs and colours that did not require realism for identification. Hieroglyphs as labels – Because everything looked the same, hieroglyphics were used to provide clear indications of names and titles, describe actions and preserve dialogue. ‘Aspective Art’ Images embodied a thing's true essence, rather than the way they really looked Figure 1 - My reproduction of an illustration of Chapter 186 of the Book of the Dead buried with the Royal Scribe Ani c. 1250 BC. It shows two protective goddesses welcoming Ani to his final resting place, a white pyramidion-topped private tomb nestled within the pink cliffs of the Theban desert. The goddess Hathor can be seen in her cow form emerging from a thicket of papyrus and is joined by the benign hippopotamus goddess Opet. Egyptian art placed its emphasis on explaining the interactions between recognisable characters rather than providing a single viewpoint or capturing a moment in time [2] . Unrestricted by notions of realism or perspective, the artists created composite scenes built up of characteristic features, combining several different views of a figure or object into one conceptual image [3] . One scene could feature the same person multiple times, at different ages and scales, and undertaking different tasks. This was intended to imbue the image with all the information needed for it to become whole and functional, and was expected to animate all that was depicted to become real. Depictions of animals emphasise their essential traits, creating an amalgam of their characteristic silhouette in side-profile but with frontal views of their horns, ears and eyes. Humans and gods were similarly shown in side-profile but with frontal views of their eyes and torso. Houses, buildings, furniture, lakes, and gardens were depicted in diagrammatic form, mixing birds-eye views with side profiles. It was important to display all the external and internal features the artist knew to exist to capture its essence, even if they are usually hidden. The Nile for example always appears in cross-section so that the creatures and vegetation within it can be seen. It usually occupies the lowest register, teeming with identifiable fish or shown with schematic boats sitting atop a band of lotus flowers ( Figure 5 ). Objects being carried by or associated with figures, such as the tools, flowers and food offerings were also depicted in diagrammatic form, and where the contents of baskets and chests would usually be hidden, they are shown stacked on top of their containers so they can be appreciated ( Figure 1 ). This unique method of representing three-dimensional forms on a two-dimensional plane, known by Egyptologist's as aspective art, gave artists a set of principles that could be applied to any form to embody its true essence, rather than reproducing its physical appearance through realism or perspective. Complex beliefs and layers of meaning were expressed through the interaction of simple forms which could be read by those sufficiently versed in their symbolism. The iconographic repertoire of standardised forms created by these conventions was used to not only graphically depict a scene to convey a deeper meaning but also create an ideogram (a character symbolising the idea of a thing without indicating the sounds used to say it). The lotus flowers in the river or held to the nose of a person for example, could act as a decorative element, the hieroglyph seshen meaning lily, or convey concepts of rebirth and divine creation linked to the ancient Egyptian's complex mythology [4] . Organisation of Space It’s all about the baselines. Figure 2 - Dynasty 1 jar label with a scene showing the jubilee of King Den (British Museum EA32650) with personal reproduction highlighting the registers and baselines (red), rectangular word groups of hieroglyphs (orange), human figures aligned to the baseline (blue), and individual hieroglyphs (green) incorporated into the registers framing. Without the need for realistic scale and perspective, the ancient Egyptians were able to use a different method to delineate scenes and draw the viewer's gaze to the important elements. When applied to a two-dimensional surface, different areas of images and hieroglyphic text art were arranged in rectangular blocks known as registers. These registers enabled artists to communicate multiple concepts in an abstract but accessible way whilst maximising the available decorative surface [2] . The register’s baseline served as an anchor point for intersecting and parallel guidelines used by artists at the drafting stage to arrange decorative elements proportionally. Figure 3 – The Narmer Palette is illustrated to show the registers (red) baselines (orange), and guidelines (blue) to organise the space and decorative elements within. Recto is a personal reproduction, verso by Quibell[5] The earliest examples of art and hieroglyphic writing arranged in this manner come from objects intended as funerary offerings in Early Dynastic royal burials. The jar label from the tomb of King Den ( Figure 2 ) and the Narmer Palette ( Figure 3 ) demonstrate how registers are used to delineate orderly scenes and how the register’s horizontal baseline is used to align figures and animals. Despite the variety of figures depicted in these examples, an underlying feeling of order is created by alignment to the baseline, stylised forms, and careful use of negative space to ensure each element is distinct and identifiable. Where disorder or chaos needs to be portrayed, it is done by deviating from or abandoning this proportional use of space. This can be seen in the bottom registers of the Narmer Palette, where defeated prisoners are shown in sprawled and twisted postures. By the Old Kingdom, the orthogonal framework developed in the Early Dynastic is fully realised. Figure 4 demonstrates how every part of the tomb wall can be utilised by visible and invisible rectangles, with crowded horizontal registers of offering bearers separated using baselines and framed by vertical registers of hieroglyphs. Figure 4 – Painting from the tomb of Watetkhethor in Saqqara, who is receiving offerings from her funerary estate, showing the horizontal baselines (orange), vertical registers (red) and the proportional guidelines applied to the human figure (blue). The best example of aspective art is the one that springs immediately to mind when one thinks about ancient Egypt, the people. Figures always show a remarkable degree of uniformity when their bodily proportions and postures are compared. This is the result of the convention employed to depict the standing human form, whereby the feet are planted on a baseline, and up to eight parallel guidelines pass through the body at equal intervals to align features ( Figure 4 ) [6] . In this template, the knee and elbow lines come at the one-third and two-third points up the figure measured from sole to hairline, and the lower border of buttocks come at half that height. A vertical axis also divided the body into two sides at the ear, with the hairline serving as the top guideline rather than the top of the head to give scope to accommodate a wide variety of differently sized hairstyles, headdresses, and insignia. Gridlines Figure 5 - A Dynasty 18 wooden drawing board showing a squared grid ruled in red was used to draw a seated figure of a king (British Museum EA5601). In the Middle Kingdom, this framework was formalised into an 18-square grid system which was used with only slight variations throughout the pharaonic period ( Figure 5 , 6 ). This retained the Old Kingdom system of intersecting guidelines at key points on the body but added additional vertical and horizontal axes so details of the anatomy could be aligned with even more uniformity and precision [7] . The grid continued to use the hairline and the soles of the feet as the major axes, and the vertical line of the grid still ran through the ear to divide the figure into two halves. There were variations of the grid to differentiate between male and female figures and versions for seated or kneeling figures to ensure all body forms and postures could be represented in a scalable way. The only real variation to the system through to the Greco-Roman period came during Dynasty 18 and the rule of Akhenaten. The Amarna Art style that characterised his reign added two squares to the grid to accommodate a longer neck and face, and a more pendulous stomach. Figure 6 - The grid system applied to a Dynasty 19 bas-relief from the tomb of Seti I, showing Hathor welcoming the dead pharaoh. Guided by the principles used to proportionally lay out the human form on a baseline, the guidelines and grids were used to distort the perspective of each body part to give its most distinctive view. In the example from the New Kingdom in Figure 7 , Nebamun, his wife and his daughter are shown with their heads, breasts, legs, and feet in profile, whilst their torsos, eyes and hands are depicted front on. To accommodate both feet, their legs are shown apart, with only the big toe visible as the most distinctive of the digits. Though this method creates a half-twisted, unnatural pose, it elegantly conveys all the necessary information to identify a whole and healthy person. As this is their eternal image, they are depicted as young, physically fit, and perfect, with no distinguishing features or emotions. Figure 7 – My reproduction of a tomb painting from the 18th Dynasty tomb chapel of Nebamun showing several common standardised figures and postures in ancient Egyptian art. Scale and Status Scale had nothing to do with size, and everything to do with importance Without identifying characteristics in human representation, Egyptian artists relied on a wide variety of symbolic iconography to portray ideas of status. Within individual registers, scale was used as a tool to indicate the person’s importance. The smallest figures are generally those of the lowest status and the largest are the gods, king, or in the case of tomb decoration, the deceased [8] . This concept was already well-established in the Early Dynastic period and can be seen in the treatment of the king and his attendants on the Narmer Palette ( Figure 3 ). Figure 8 - Painting from the tomb of Watetkhethor in Saqqara showing her (centre), her son (left), daughter (right), workers of her funerary estates (far left) and female palanquin bearers (far right). In the tomb of Watetkhethor, her status is confirmed by her monumental size ( Figure 8 ), and she is accompanied by two others, whose larger scale, proximity to her and formalised postures also suggest high status. They are identified as children, not by their size, but by the artistic convention of depicting the hair in a sidelock or plait-and-disc [9] . The smallest figures, and consequently those with the least status, are the mass of workers shown hauling nets of fish, punting reed boats filled with offerings, and undertaking various stages of cow husbandry and slaughter. Social status within this class is identified using symbols rather than scale, with overseers distinguished by their projecting kilts and staves of offices, whilst the workers wear simple loincloths or appear naked. These figures mostly conform to the Egyptian canon of proportions for human representation, but their execution is less detailed, and they show a wider variety of postures [10] . Colour Colours expressed ideas Artistic conventions are not only confined to the organisation of forms created by Egyptian sculptors and draughtsmen but also extend to the final stage of decoration, the application of colour. The artists' palette was limited to six pigments based on naturally occurring materials that were mixed to create a variety of shades [11] : Chalk, gypsum and carbonates and sulphates of lime were used to create white Carbon in the form of soot was used to create black, which was mixed with white to create shades of grey Earth ochres were used for red, yellow and brown Artificial compounds of powdered copper, malachite or azurite were used to create blue (called "Egyptian blue") and green ("green frit") Orpiment, an arsenic sulfide mineral found in volcanic fumaroles, was used on the rare occasion to create yellow and orange Figure 9 – My reproduction of a painting from the tomb of Queen Nefertari in the Valley of the Queens dating to Dynasty 19. The Great Wife of Ramesses II is being led by the hand of the goddess Isis towards Khepri, the beetle-headed sun god. Egyptian art uses polychromy, filling in the outlines with solid blocks of these contrasting colours which were chosen as much for their symbolic meaning as they were to accurately illustrate the subject. In Figure 9 , the green of the reed mat beneath Khepri’s throne and the gold of Nefertari’s crown is accurate, whereas the colours chosen for the three figure’s skin indicate another layer of meaning. It was a convention to depict women with lighter brown or yellower skin to men, whose was usually reddish-brown. The gods were depicted with yellow skin and blue hair to reflect the myth that the gods’ bodies were made of precious metals and stones. Gods like Osiris and Ptah could also be green or black-skinned to reflect ideas of fertility and regeneration embodied by the black fertile soil and green growth that characterised the Nile floods. Hieroglyphs Figure 10 – My reproduction and colourisation of a scene from the rear panel of the second golden shrine of Tutankhamun, dating to 1324 BC. Hieroglyphic signs form the basis of Egyptian iconography, being themselves individual works of art used to symbolically represent both sounds and ideas. We see the earliest examples being used individually in royal contexts to represent a name or idea (the Narmer Palette in Figure 3 ), or combined with others to create narratives and titles (king Den’s jar label in Figure 2 ). The hieroglyphic script embodies all the principles of aspective art, with standardised recognisable forms created out of composite parts used to communicate clear and often specific symbolic statements [12] . They could be read as words in registers or be transposed into other representational settings, so they formed part of the decorative scheme. For example, the depiction of men kneeling with one arm bent against the chest and another raised in a gesture corresponds exactly with the hieroglyph meaning ‘jubilation’, communicating the meaning both visually and verbally. ­Written words have the potential for immortality, and in the funerary context performed a vital function in preserving the name of the deceased and ensuring all their needs in the afterlife would be met. They were used to clarify the precise identity of the idealised representations by applying a label or to provide dialogue or description of the actions being performed or the words being spoken [13] . Examples of Symbolism Thanks for reading, please feel free to leave or comment or ask a question! And if you're inspired by ancient Egyptian art, take a look through my full portfolio or visit my shop ! References and Further Reading [1] Aldred, C., 1988. Egyptian Art in the Days of the Pharaohs 3100-320 BC. London: Thames and Hudson, p15 [2] Manley, B., 2017. Egyptian Art. London: Thames and Hudson, p91 [3] Arnold, D., 2013. Ancient Egyptian Art: Image and Response. In: R. Koehl, ed. AMILLA: The Quest for Excellence. Studies Presented to Guenter Kopcke in Celebration of His 75th Birthday. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press, p6 [4] Wilkinson, R. H., 1992. Reading Ancient Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, p121 [5] Quibell, J. E., 1898. Slate Palette from Hierakonpolis. Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (Z.A.S.), Volume 36, pp. 81-84, plate 12 [6] Robins, G., 1994. Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art. Austin: University of Texas Press, p64 [7] Aldred, C., 1988. Egyptian Art in the Days of the Pharaohs 3100-320 BC. London: Thames and Hudson, p26 [8] Manley, B., 2017. Egyptian Art. London: Thames and Hudson, p92 [9] Wen, J., 2018. The Iconography Of Family Members In Egypt’s Elite Tombs Of The Old Kingdom. s.l.:University of Pennsylvania Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations, p258 [10] Pieke, G., 2011. The Evidence of Images: Art and Working Techniques in the Mastaba of Mereruka. In: N. Strudwick & H. Strudwick, eds. Old Kingdom, New Perspectives: Egyptian Art and Archaeology 2750–2150 BC. Oxford: Oxbox Books, pp. 216-228. [11] Duell, P., 1938. The Mastaba of Mereruka, Part I. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, p10 [12] (Wilkinson, 1992, p. 10) Wilkinson, R. H., 1992. Reading Ancient Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, p10 [13] Staring, N., 2011. Fixed rules or personal choice? On the composition and arrangement of daily life scenes in Old Kingdom elite tombs. In: N. Strudwick & H. Strudwick, eds. Old Kingdom, New Perspectives: Egyptian Art and Archaeology 2750–2150 BC. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 245-256.

Visit my Shop! My newest print features 15 of the major goddesses of the ancient Egyptian pantheon, shown with their modern names, and their names in the ancient Egyptian language. Though this is my creation, the figures are based on those found in tomb paintings and papyrus from a range of periods. Let's meet them. Jump to... Bastet , Hathor , Heqet , Imentet , Isis , Maat , Neith , Nekhbet , Nephthys , Nut , Sekhmet , Serket , Seshat , Taweret , Wadjet Bastet bꜢst The feline goddess of home, fertility, and music Bastet is an ancient Egyptian goddess revered as the protector of the home and family, as well as the goddess of fertility, music, and dance. Initially depicted as a lioness or a woman with the head of a lioness, her image later transitioned to that of a domestic cat, reflecting her dual nature as both fierce and nurturing. Bastet was worshipped for her ability to bring joy, protect against evil spirits, and safeguard the household. Her primary cult centre was in the city of Bubastis, where grand festivals and elaborate ceremonies celebrated her with music, dancing, and feasting, highlighting her significance in daily and religious life. Find Art Hathor ḥwt-ḥr The cow-headed goddess of love, beauty, and motherhood Hathor was one of Egypt’s earliest goddesses and was worshipped as the divine representation of protection, motherhood, queenship, music, dance, joy, love and sexuality. She was the daughter of Ra, the all-powerful sun god, and wore a solar disk upon her head within a pair of bovine horns. In Egyptian, her name meant “House of Horus”, referring to her role as the wife of Horus, the sky god associated with kingship. Heqet ḥqt The frog-headed goddess of fertility and childbirth Heqet is an ancient Egyptian goddess associated with fertility, childbirth, and rebirth, often depicted as a frog or a woman with a frog's head. Frogs were symbols of fertility due to their association with the annual flooding of the Nile, which brought life-giving water and renewal to the land. Heqet was believed to assist in childbirth, breathing life into newborns and protecting mothers during labour. Temples and amulets dedicated to Heqet were common, emphasising her role in ensuring safe births and new beginnings. Imentet ỉmn.t-t The goddess of the afterlife and renewal Imentet was a goddess of the dead and was believed to have lived in a tree at the edge of the western desert overlooking the gates to the underworld. She met the souls of the recently deceased and offered them bread and water before ushering them into the realm of the dead. Her name means “She of the West”, and her crown is the sign representing the West (a semicircle on top of one long and one short pole) surmounted by a hawk. Isis ꜣst The goddess of magic, motherhood, and healing Isis was a goddess of women, motherhood, fertility, and royal power. She was the sister of Nephthys and Seth, and the sister-wife of Osiris and mother to Horus. Isis played a crucial role in the resurrection of Osiris after his murder at the hands of Seth, and was believed to protect the dead alongside her husband in the afterlife. Upon her head is the symbol of her name, which is the hieroglyph for a throne. Maat mꜣꜥt The goddess of truth, justice, and harmony Maat, the winged goddess in Egyptian mythology, symbolises truth, balance and justice. As the embodiment of cosmic equilibrium, Maat's presence was pivotal for maintaining balance and ethical conduct in the world. Maat played a vital role in ancient Egyptian society, ensuring harmony and fairness in both earthly and divine matters. She was present in the judgment of the deceased, where a heart was weighed against her feather to determine one's fate in the afterlife. Her feathered headdress represents her connection to law and order. Neith nit The goddess of warfare and weaponry Neith was one of ancient Egypt’s earliest goddesses, whose name meant “she is the terrifying one”. She was worshipped from the pre-dynastic period as the original creator of the universe and everything it contained, governing how all things functioned. As religious practices evolved, she was worshipped more for her protective qualities. In her form as a goddess of war, she was said to make the weapons of warriors and to guard their bodies when they died. The symbol for her name and the headdress she wears depict two bows over a shield, which is sometimes crossed with arrows. Nekhbet nḫbt The vulture goddess of protection, royalty, and patroness of Upper Egypt Nekhbet is an early predynastic local goddess, who was the patron of the city of Nekheb and Upper Egypt. She and her Lower Egyptian counterpart Wadjet often appeared together as the “Two Ladies”, symbolising all of ancient Egypt when it was unified. In early art, Nekhbet was depicted as a vulture or as a woman with the head of a vulture. As a vulture, Nekhbet was usually shown hovering on spread wings and clutching a shen symbol in her claws, which represented eternal encircling protection. She also appeared on the headdresses of royalty as a vulture alongside a uraeus cobra, the creature associated with her counterpart Wadjet. Nephthys nbt-ḥwt The goddess of mourning, death and the night Nephthys, an ancient Egyptian goddess, was associated with mourning, protection, and the afterlife. She was revered as a guardian goddess, embodying both the sorrow of loss and the promise of rebirth and regeneration. Sister to Isis, Osiris, and Seth, and wife of Seth, she played a crucial role in the resurrection of Osiris by helping Isis gather his dismembered body. Depicted with protective wings and a house and basket hieroglyph on her head, Nephthys was believed to protect the deceased and assist their journey to the afterlife. Nut nt The sky goddess, mother of the gods, and bringer of night Nut, an ancient Egyptian goddess, personified the sky, stars, and heavens. She was depicted as a cow or as a naked woman with blue skin adorned with stars, representing the celestial canopy that shelters the world. Nut was the daughter of Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess of moisture, and sister-wife to Geb, the Earth god. Together, they are the offspring of the primordial deity Ra-Atum. One of her most significant roles is in the daily cycle of the sun. Each night, Nut swallows the sun god Ra, and each morning, she gives birth to him anew, symbolising the dawn. This daily rebirth underscores her association with renewal and regeneration. Sekhmet sḫmt The lioness goddess of war, destruction, and healing Sekhmet is a powerful ancient Egyptian goddess of war, destruction, and healing whose name meant “the Powerful One”. She is often depicted as a lioness or as a woman with the head of a lioness, symbolising her fierce and protective nature. Daughter of the sun god Ra, she was known as the “Eye of the Sun”, the violent, dazzling and protective aspect of the creator god.   She breathed fire against her enemies and was called upon to protect the pharaohs in battle. Despite her fearsome attributes, Sekhmet also had a dual role as a healer and held the title "mistress of life". She was worshipped as a goddess who could inflict and cure ailments and was associated with medicine and surgery. Serket srḳt The scorpion goddess of protection against venom Serket, whose name means "She Who Tightens the Throat", is an ancient Egyptian goddess associated with protection, healing, and venomous creatures. She is often depicted as a woman with a scorpion on her head or as a scorpion herself. Serket's association with healing made her a patroness of physicians and magicians who invoked her aid to treat scorpion stings and snake bites. As a protective deity, she was one of four goddesses who protected the canopic jars containing the organs of the mummified, entrusted with safeguarding the jar containing the intestines guarded by Qebehsenuef. Seshat sšꜢt The goddess of writing, wisdom, and measurement Seshat represented wisdom, knowledge, and writing and was the patroness of architects and scribes. She played a crucial role in recording history, measuring time, and overseeing the construction of temples and monuments. As the "Lady of the Library," she symbolised the importance of literacy and scholarship in Egyptian society, embodying the pursuit of wisdom and the preservation of knowledge. Seshat was depicted draped in a leopard skin, a garment usually worn by male priests, and a headdress resembling a seven-pointed star. Taweret tꜢ-wrt The hippopotamus goddess of childbirth and fertility Taweret is the ancient Egyptian goddess of childbirth and fertility, symbolising strength and maternal care. Her benevolent nature extended beyond maternity, with amulets and household items bearing her image used to protect against malevolent forces. She was depicted as a hybrid creature with the body of a hippopotamus, the limbs of a lion, the back and tail of a Nile crocodile, and the breasts and belly of a pregnant woman. Tawaret was believed to safeguard mothers and children during pregnancy and childbirth, warding off evil spirits and harmful influences. Wadjet wꜢḏt The cobra goddess of protection, royalty, and patroness of Lower Egypt Wadjet is an early predynastic local goddess, who was the patron of the city of Per-Wadjet (Buto) and Lower Egypt. She and her Upper Egyptian counterpart Nekhbet often appeared together as the “Two Ladies”, symbolising all of ancient Egypt when it was unified. Wadjet was depicted as a cobra or a woman with a cobra's head and was closely associated with the uraeus, the rearing cobra emblem on pharaohs' crowns, which was believed to spit fire at enemies. She was also linked to the Eye of Ra, embodying the sun god's protective and vengeful aspects. She was worshipped as a fierce protector of the nation and a provider of stability and order.

Object Type : Wall painting Materials : Limestone, gesso, pigment Date : c. 1390–1353 BC Period : Dynasty 18, New Kingdom Findspot : Tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky ( TT181 ), Sheikh-Abd-el-Gournah, Thebes Dimensions : 37.6 x 24 cm Current Location : Brooklyn Museum Accession Number : 65.197 Print Reference : DP119   Carved into the limestone cliffs of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna, the joint tomb of Nebamun and Ipuky  (TT181) dates to Egypt’s 18th Dynasty, during the reigns of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten. Both men were master craftsmen, holding titles such as "Chief Sculptor in the Sacred Place" and "Supervisor of the Balance" at Djeseret Iset, the Small Temple at Medinet Habu. Although the tomb was never completed, it originally featured extensive painted decoration. Much of this has been lost through centuries of environmental damage, looting, and deliberate removal. Early records by Egyptologists, such as  Jean-Vincent Scheil  and  Norman de Garis Davies,  remain crucial sources for reconstructing its imagery. My reproduction focuses on one of the best-preserved figures from the tomb: the noblewoman Tjepu, mother of Nebamun. The original painting, now housed in the Brooklyn Museum, was executed in pigment on plaster and would have adorned the tomb’s wall in vibrant colour. Although it now survives only in fragments, the clarity and quality of the surviving work demonstrate the skill of the original artists. Lady Tjepu, ca. 1390–1353 B.C.E.. Limestone, gesso, pigment, 14 13/16 x 9 7/16 in. (37.6 x 24 cm). Brooklyn Museum, Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, 65.197. (Photo: Brooklyn Museum) Tjepu is presented following the artistic conventions of the time. She wears a fine, semi-transparent linen dress, fitted and fringed, in keeping with 18th Dynasty elite fashion. Her elaborate wig is topped with a perfumed cone and a floral headband, both common features in depictions of women attending ritual or banquet scenes. She is shown in a standard pose, standing with one arm raised in adoration and the other holding a menat necklace and counterpoise, an object associated with the goddess Hathor. These details, while idealised, are rooted in the religious and social practices of the period. The inscription behind Tjepu (which I haven’t reproduced due to its fragmentary nature) identifies her as "Lady of the House", a title denoting her status within the household. Her image was originally part of a larger scene where she stood behind her son as he poured oil over offerings. This positioning is notable. Tombs typically show the owner's wife in this place, so Tjepu's inclusion here may reflect a particularly close relationship with her son, or simply the availability of space, as Nebamun had likely married Ipuky’s widow, who was already depicted elsewhere in the tomb.

Reproduction Details Object Type : Cross-lined ware bowl Date : c. 3850–3650 BC Period : Predynastic, Naqada I Findspot : Mesaid (Mesa'eed) tomb 26, no. 6 [M/26/6] Dimensions : Height 6.8 x Diameter 19.4 cm Material : Nile silt clay Current location : Boston Museum of Fine Arts Inventory number : 11.312 My reproduction of a prehistoric white cross-lined ware bowl from the Naqada I period (c. 3850–3650 BC). It depicts three stylised hippos gathered around a central rosette representing a pool of water with zigzag cliffs beyond representing the horizon. Wild creatures such as hippos and crocodiles are often found depicted on this type of pottery found in graves and it’s thought they were intended to impart their powers on the vessels' owners, granting them success hunting and protection from danger in the afterlife. Cross-lined ware was handmade of reddish Nile silt clay, burnished, coated with a thin red slip, and then decorated with linear patterns in thick, creamy white paint. Most of the best examples come from tombs, suggesting they may have been made specifically as funerary offerings. Predynastic Art